~ Egyptian Winged Serpents
~ Middle Eastern Dragons
~ Mythical Rain-Serpent
~ Ouroboros
~ Sirrush
...A dragon... tooke first ground from the Affricans, who beleeve that the originall of dragons tooke beginning from the unnaturall conjunction of an Eagle & a She-Wolfe. And so they say that the Wolfe growing great by this conception, doth not bring forth as at other times, but her belly breaketh, and the dragon commeth out, who in his beake and wings resembleth the dragon his father, and in his feete and tayle, the wolfe his mother, but in the skin neither of them both: but this kind of fabulus generation, is already sufficiently confuted. Edward Topsell quoted in Byrne, 1979, p. 152.
The dragon of the African and Middle Eastern world is a chimerical figure, composed of natural animals yet binding together ancient qualities that allude to mythical origins. Perhaps unlike the dragons of various other cultures, the African dragon is a highly cosmological figure. Representative of eternity and the continual cycle of life reflected in the heavens, the African dragons embody numerous mythological values, both human and godly. As a snake, the serpent is recurrent in the physical world, however once it binds it's head and tail together to become ouroboros, it transcends into a symbol of the heavens.
In the Middle Eastern world, dragons were physically more developed creatures. With their basis in the serpent, these dragons are ultimately chimerical, depicted in artwork with lion, eagle, lizard and serpent components. They often sprout wings and are further personalised with horns, multiple heads or various body coverings and markings, many of which suggest an involvement with spiritual mysticism. Such is the dragon Mother Chuber or Tiamat, slain by Merodach (also Marduk [Hooke, 1963]), whose body yields the earth and heavens (Mackenzie, year unknown). This story holds significant importance as a cosmological tale, rather than a lesson on the morals of humans and gods (Huxley, 1979).
Snakes were extremely important in African culture. Such creatures were held in fear; not only did they slither on their undersides, lacking feet, they did not live with the other animals and therefore were seen as a threat. To avoid conflict with a snake, certain measures were taken. During hoeing season, double-headed snake rings were worn with the belief that snakes will not bite their own kind (Parrinder, 1996), while double-headed snake charms and bronze amulets bestowed luck (Fig. 1). The heads of dead monitor lizards were carried as a ward against the poisonous viper (Morris, et al., 2001). Despite this superstition, the snake was revered and considered immortal for its ability to shed its skin. Galla mythology elaborates upon this, when the bird told the snake; "people will grow old and die, but when you grow old, all you have to do is crawl out of your skin, and you will be young again (Ananikian & Werner, 1925)." This ability was a gift originally intended for humans, but mistakenly delivered to serpents (Mythaeum, 2004a). Such mythology is reminiscent of early belief in the upper Congo, in which a man's lover possessed such an ability. When his wife saw her husband's consort with newly-shed skin, glowing with youth and beauty, both women died and death was introduced to the human race. Perhaps it was through human jealousy and greed that the magic gift was lost, and the snake was able to inherit this wondrous ability.
Of the snakes, the python was favoured as it lacked venom, and it was this serpent that originally brought man and woman together. According to the Ashanti people, humans initially had no desire for intercourse, so the python took them to his river and sprayed water on their bellies, calling "kus, kus", before ordering them to go home where they reproduced. To honour the wise python, the words kus, kus are used today in clan rituals. The sacred pythons must never be killed and if a dead one is found, they are covered with white clay and given a burial befitting a human (Parrinder, 1996). However, in Northern Territory mythology of the Gold Coast, humankind's first child was eaten by a python. As punishment, the parents and two helpers skinned the devious snake, and restored the child to life. The iridescent skin was thrown into the sky where its head became the sun and its tail the moon. These two heavenly bodies were joined by the spotted hide which formed the stars.
The African serpent represents lively, flowing motion and as it travels, its melodious voice can be heard from afar. When dwelling in the waters beneath the earth, the serpent represents unmatched power, reflected in it's never-ending movement which influences the motion of the sun, moon and stars (Parrinder, 1996). In African Gai -//Khaun mythology, the snake was believed to adopt bovine shape when out of the water and live in the sky during the day, returning at night to its serpentine form where it retreated to the water, considered a door to Other Worlds (Le Quellec, 2004). In numerous other myths, the serpent was nocturnal, venturing out at night to hunt (Le Quellec, 2004).
Similarly the mythical serpents, much like extant snakes steeped in superstition, were credited with esoteric abilities. In numerous rock paintings these serpents are identified by their massive size, often with a human or regular snake beside them to emphasise the difference (Le Quellec, 2004). In the Eastern Cape, serpents were represented with flying mythical beings, the alites, or were distinguished by their strange markings, such as one serpent painted in Mutoko, north-east Zimbabwe. Others were shown with the heads of antelope, or mammalian features such as ears or horns. In the case of the "anguiped" human in the Matopo Hills in Zimbabwe, snakes merged with people to become therianthropic men with serpentine legs. These composite snakes were often indirectly linked to sexuality through their ties with antelope and rain. While antelope were favourite sacrifices to the rain snakes, the eland had specific sexual dimorphism. Fat was commonly attributed to sexuality and desire, and thus females were thought to induce rainfall. Both symbols are closely related to the serpent, and strengthened by the fact that the serpent is commonly associated with phallic imagery (Le Quellec, 2004).
Rock paintings of serpents, humans and animals were seen almost as magical. Offerings were regularly placed in front of the rocks to induce the midzimu or "ancestral spirit" within the rock to come out so new images would appear; when the midzimu sank back into the rock, the art would fade. Should the midzimu be shown a lack of respect, the spirits would punish offenders by sending a supernatural snake after them (Le Quellec, 2004).
In contrast to the African serpents, dragons of the Middle East were extremely varied in appearance, often reflective of their role within society. The Babylonian sirrush was a consort to the sun god Marduk, who had lain waste to the dragon Tiamat (Hooke, 1963). Like the typical Middle Eastern dragon, the sirrush was a composite creature with the body parts of extant animals (Storm, 2002).
In Persia, the dragon Azhi Dahaka was a devil by nature. The dragon or div, a false god waging war on humanity, was created by the wise Angra Mainyu to oppose goodness and truth (Allan, et al., 1999). This dragon embodied corruption; with three heads on long necks and terrible fangs, Azhi Dahaka was literally made of the unclean khrafstra, animals such as snakes, toads, scorpions, frogs and lizards. The dragon roamed through the universe until Angra Mainyu, perhaps regretting his decision to create such a monster, decided to end him. Sending his champion Thraetaona to slay the dragon, Azhi Dahaka was chained to Mount Damavand. During the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni (AD 994-1030) the Shahnameh or "book of kings" was written by Firdowsi, who retold the tale with notable differences, including the anthropomorphisation of Azhi Dahaka into Zahak, a human king with snakes on his shoulders who feasted on human brains. As foretold in a vision years earlier, the tyrant king Zahak was eventually overthrown by the hero Faridun (Thraetaona), who imprisoned him on Mount Demavand's desolate slopes (Allan, et al., 1999).
In Firdowsi's Shahnameh, Alexander the Great is juxtaposed alongside young heroes such as Faridun, as an explorer who defeats and claims Iran (Allan, et al., 1999). Climbing to the top of a mountain guarded by a terrible dragon, perhaps Azhi Dahaka or Zahak, the explorer discovers the well-preserved body of a holy man. A voice informs him his time of death is upon him. At first, it would appear that such an unclimactic end for Alexander is reflected in the uselessness of the hero's plight, as Azhi Dahaka is destined to break free of his imprisonment for a final attempt at chaos, which will catalyse the apocalypse. However, the discovery of a holy man may be representative of the preservation of the hero spirit, as the great dragon is destined for defeat at the hands of Ahura Mazda's greatest warrior, Keresaspa (Allan, et al., 1999).
The dragons of the Middle East are dramatic figures, involved in epic sagas as embodiments of the evil beast who threatens the foundations of peace, or as a symbol of the gods. As in Africa, the serpent of Middle Eastern Islamic faith was known to encircle life as the "Mysterious Serpent", on whose head the seat of creation, the world, rested (Mythaeum, 2004b). At the sacred Ka'ba or "Square House" which housed the Black Stone1, a glittering, black and white serpent wrapped itself around the house so that its tail reached its head (Storm, 2002). This image became connected with the ocean and violent weather, where the snake-dragon was described as a stormy, two-headed (sometimes translated as two-winged) serpent that followed Mekka, where it wound around the foundations of the sacred house.
And when it [the serpent; MAS] opens its mouth it encompasses the heavens like a flash of lightning. And if this serpent hat [sic! MAS] not been inspired to moderate its glorification, all creatures would be thunder stricken at its voice (Kisa’i).
The Azraqi Sakina, which is interchangeable with the Hebrew Shekinah, was described as a divine presence who wrapped around the original foundations of the house that held the sacred Black Stone, like the serpent mentioned above (Storm, 2002).
