European Dragons

05 siječanj 2006

Aitvaras:
Rooster-like in appearance, the aitvaras is easily confused with the cockatrice for the two chimerical dragons have similar physical features. With four armour-plated legs, thick scales and spines protecting its body, the aitvaras is a strong, robust creature (Nigg, 2002). However, the aitvaras is famed mostly for its fiery tail that, when rubbed against ash, bursts into flames; a lethal weapon often employed against enemies. The aitvaras have been known to work in partnership with farmers; in exchange for eggs, these creatures bear gifts of coins and grain (Nigg, 2002).

Amphisbaena:
Brought to life when the blood from the gorgon Medusa was spilt on the desert sand, the amphisbaena (also amphisbena, amphivena, Greek for "goes both ways") or tail-biter, has a second head at its tail-end, both of which are the same size as the rest of its body (Nigg, 2002). This is said to be due to the amphisbaenas body being of the same thickness at both ends (White, 1969), however it is also possible that their tail is shaped like their head to confuse enemies (such as the shingleback lizards [Trachydosaurus rugosus] of Australia). Because very few amphisbaenas have wings, these dragons have accommodated for their earth-bound predicament by learning to grasp their second head in their mouth and travelling by rolling around in a ring- a much more efficient mode of transport. This enables them to move faster and confuses those seeking to capture them, as these serpent dragons can travel either forward or backward (Nigg, 2002). The second head also gives the dragon an advantage over other creatures, as one head will constantly remain alert while the other sleeps (Nigg, 2002). When hatching an egg, amphisbaenas have been noted to take turns by waking each other up to guard while the other rests. Ironically, the amphisbaena has small eyes and poor vision (White, 1969), despite being birthed from the gorgon whose gaze turned others to stone.
This dragon symbolises the eternal circle of life as it holds its secondary head in its mouth, and was often referred to by medieval alchemists who felt the amphisbaena to immortalise the continuity of birth, life and death. Lucan wrote of the amphisbaena:

Rising on twin-born heads comes dangerous Amphisbaena
And her eyes shine like lamps (White, 1969, p. 177).

The amphisbaena has often been included in bestiaries and art; a Viking torc or silver bracelet dating from the 11th century AD depicts the double-headed serpent (Shuker, 2004). Though found throughout Europe, they have also been discovered in Libya, North Africa.
The amphisbaena has the feet of a rooster, a large crest of spikes atop its lizard-like head, a scaly body, and in the case of some, a pair of feathered wings (Dragon Fantastic, 2001). The size of an amphisbaena can range from an earthworm to 75 cm (2.5 ft) long, and these dragons burrow underground tunnels (White, 1969). When threatened, the amphisbaena can exude an agonising poison from its quick bite which kills swiftly. The scales of an amphisbaena are thought to have medicinal properties, particularly good for curing cold shivers and chilblains, as this dragon is able to withstand cold temperatures and was always the first creature to emerge from hibernation. Should a pregnant woman step over an amphisbaena, she will miscarry her child (White, 1969).

Basilisk/ Cockatrice:
The word basilisk is derived from the Greek basileus, meaning "king"; translated into Latin however, the word becomes regulus, "a prince" (White, 1969). Both meanings are accurate, as the basilisk is both the king of all small serpents, yet still subordinate (in title only) to the larger Western dragon, the king of all large serpents.
There are several types of basilisk, yet all are famed for their unnatural viciousness and wicked prowess. Basilisks are credited with a deadly gaze; while one type burns up anything they approach, another strikes dead anything that meets their yellow gaze. Usually, the creature or person goes into an extreme stage of shock as a result of meeting the basilisks stare, which shrivels and destroys them- this same, piercing glare is known for splitting apart large boulders. Its toxic breath can turn the lushest areas to barren wastelands, and animals around can expire simply from the odour it emanates. Similarly, any bird flying above a basilisk, though it may be far from the creature, burns and dies (White, 1969). The hiss of a basilisk sends people and animals running, though it is almost impossible to escape harm from this creature as the sound produces hydrophobia and causes the listener to turn mad or burst into flames (Bullfinch, year unknown; White, 1969). Like the Western dragon, the strength of the basilisk lies in its tail which can kill simply by contact (Cooper, 1992). Pliny, the Roman naturalist, wrote of the basilisk, "he kills the shrubs, not only by contact, but by breathing on them, and splits the rocks, such power of evil there is in him."
This is in fact no elaboration, for the basilisk's venom is so powerful that it can travel along objects; after stabbing a basilisk with his spear, a knight and his mount were once reported to have died after the basilisk's venom diffused through the weapon. Should a basilisk bite any object in a persons hand, the bearer would die (Nigg, 2002).

What though the Moor the basilisk hath slain,
And pinned him lifeless to the sandy plain,
Up through the spear the subtle venom flies,
The hand imbibes it, and the victor dies (Lucan, quoted in Bullfinch, year unknown, p. 330).

The basilisk is said to live in desert areas like the scorpion, however this is not because it is native to the hotter, arid climate, but because its noxious breath and lethal, burning presence leaves nothing save the barren waste- which also accounts for the basilisks solitary confinement. Maintaining their kingly reputation, the basilisk carries its long body upright in coils, rather than slither along the ground like other serpents. In this sense, the basilisk is held above its subjects. A white mark or tuft of hair on the head of a basilisk further venerates its symbolic royal status, as this closely resembles a crown (Nigg, 2002). This white mark bands out into 15 cm or six inch stripes along the basilisks length (White, 1969).
The basilisk has the body of a serpent and can have between one to four pairs of bird-like legs. Sometimes depicted with wings and antlers, these dragons are usually just under 30 cm (1 ft) long, though a few individual basilisks are reported to be approx. 1 m (3 ft) long.
Despite the basilisks supreme power, no creature is without its enemy. The only object not to combust under the basilisk is the rue plant. Knowing this, weasels- which are already immune to the basilisks deadly gaze, eat the plant for protection after chasing the basilisk and biting it to death. Basilisk hide deterred spiders; one basilisk skin stretched out in the temple of Apollo successfully repelled the arachnids, and in the temple of Diana another hide stopped swallows from entering (Bullfinch, year unknown). When burnt and scattered around an area, basilisk ashes prevented venomous spiders from weaving their webs (Nigg, 2002). This made their skins very valuable, and so after feeding their weasels a rue plant, hunters would send them down basilisk tunnels, as weasels pursued basilisks relentlessly, perhaps recognising their evil as representatives of the Antichrist (Cooper, 1992; Nigg, 2002).
The crow of a rooster or cock sends the dragon into convulsions that result in death, and travellers would often take these birds with them to ensure their safety (Nigg, 2002). By looking into a mirror, the basilisk can also die.

After some years (perhaps around the first century AD), the basilisk began a transformation into the cockatrice- though there is a physical difference between the two, the cockatrice still retained the personality and temperament of its relative. With a lizard-like body (as opposed to the often more serpentine form of the basilisk), a tail like the spiked scorpion telson sting (White, 1969), the head of a rooster, small bat wings and up to three pairs of legs, the cockatrice and basilisk are interchangeable in history (Legg, 1998). There is some question over whether or not the basilisk and cockatrice are two separate dragons or just different names for the same creature (White, 1969). In 1382, the Wycliffe Bible renamed the basilisk the cockatrice, and words that blurred the line between the two dragons, such as "basili-coc" were already in use. Around this time historical linguistic changes began to interfere with and affect natural history, and the crocodile (Cocodrillus) was similar to cock and cockatrice, while the Trochilus bird which picked clean the food between the teeth of crocodiles may have been a cock bird also. The aesthetical similarities between the two conflicts; the weasel and basilisk, and the hydrus and crocodile, not to mention the wattles and combs of cocks and crests of serpents, further added to the etymological confusion (White, 1969). At the end, it appears the muddle of grammar and bad translation birthed the cockatrice.
Interestingly, the cockatrice has a highly unconventional method of birth, as though the natural world is set up against adding such a dangerous, evil creature to its stock. The cockatrice is lain from an egg by a cock in its seventh year, which causes the rooster intense discomfort, when the star Sirius is in the sky. The egg is then hatched by either a toad or snake, usually on a dung heap (Shuker, 2004).
Albertus Magnus says of the cockatrice, "I do not think it is true; yet it is reported as a fact by Hermes and accepted by many persons." Shelley expresses his joy at a decision of the Naples Constitutional Government, referring to the basilisk:

... Be thou like the imperial basilisk,
Killing thy foe with unapparent wounds!
Gaze on oppression, till at that dread risk,
Aghast she pass from the earth's disk.
Fear not, but gaze, -for freemen mightier grow,
And slaves more feeble, gazing on their foe.

The basilisk and cockatrice are found not only in Europe but in North Africa, and a similar dragon lairs in Iceland; called the skoffin, it can only be killed by seeing another of its kind or (like the werewolf), by being shot with a silver button engraved with the sign of the Cross (Shuker, 2004).
Today, however, the basilisk is usually depicted as a serpent or worm with a comb, while the cockatrice is shown in its full winged and crested splendour.

Hydra:
The hydra (Greek for "water serpent") or Excedra (from the Latin Excedere "to outbid" [White, 1969]) is a multi-headed dragon who has appeared on heraldic crests and whose relatives include the multi-headed Scylla and the dragon Ladon, who guarded the golden apples.
It is not hard to envision why the hydra is a recurring image in different cultures and their stories, for this dragon is justifiably one of the most feared. Similar in appearance to a Western dragon with two to four legs, the hydra is very large and usually earth-bound, lacking wings. Though only a rare few can breathe fire, hydras make up for this by their many heads which, should one be cut off, will instantly be replaced with another two. The only way to stop this process is to cauterise the wound immediately after cutting a hydra's head off; a tactic the Greek Heracles (also Roman Hercules) employed when fighting one such beast. All hydras are believed to have a central, immortal head made of gold (Byrne [ed], 1979). Like the basilisk, the hydra also has a noxious breath and acidic blood (Graves, 1985) that can lay waste to the surrounding area, which is most likely why they are found in swampy regions (Couch, 1997). Usually these dragons go unchallenged for the few relics and pieces of gold they guard, for their temperament is cruel and unforgiving. Though originally from Greece, these dragons are said to be bred in Turkey, and the crests along the back of their heads are believed to resemble the "cap" worn by men of this region (Byrne [ed], 1979).
To take advantage of gullible travellers in past years, many fake dragons were put together from different animal parts to be sold as souvenirs. In January of 550 AD one such hydra "carcass" worth 6 000 duckats was brought from Turkey to Venice, later to be given to the French king as a gift (Byrne [ed], 1979). Many years later another counterfeit, nine-headed hydra with the heads and feet of a weasel, a snake's body and tail stood on a church altar in Prague until it was stolen in 1648. The fake hydra was later sold between different owners for high prices; it was only until the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus got hold of the hydra that he proclaimed it to be a hoax (Legg, 1998).

Lindworm:
Similar in appearance to the European wyrm dragon, the lindworm or "Lindworm Snake" (Cooper, 1992) is distinguished from its cousins by the single pair of forelegs they possess on the upper half of their bodies. These dragons are not to be confused with the tazelworm, which also have a single pair of forelegs but are distinguished by their feline head. The lindworm was written about in great detail by the explorer Marco Polo, who was obviously quite taken with the creature (Allen & Griffiths, 1979).
With extremely good vision, the lindworm spies on prey from beneath the streams it lives in, and will use its whip-like tail for defence should any harm come its way. As they live in the water, it is highly possible they have, in the past, been confused with sea snakes which have bright and beautiful colours, something many dragons are attributed with. However, this would only account for the smaller or young lindworms, as adults grow to many metres in length and height- to demonstrate their size, a large wooly rhinoceros skull discovered in Austria in 1335 was originally believed to be that of a lindworm (Shuker, 2004).

Lindworms live along the coastline or near the shore of European water bodies, and their insatiable hunger for horse drives them to risk their own life just to catch one. This illogical weakness is their only downfall, as it makes them vulnerable and open for attack. They are primarily Germanic dragons, though they are also said to live in the mountain regions of Sweden, near rivers (Shuker, 2004) and have been sighted as far as the Americas. With a predatory nature, lindworms will venture inland to eat cattle and dig up corpses in churchyards, upholding their self-sustained image as a creature of death, war and disease (Cooper, 1992). Lindworms are heraldic in nature (Cooper, 1992), featuring in many old texts such as the 15th century scrolls of George Ripley (Shuker, 2004).

In Malaysia, stories that were investigated by explorer Stewart Wavell in 1951 revealed that huge, golden serpents known locally as the ular tedong or "giant serpents" occupied water bodies in the Pahang state (Shuker, 1995). With small, overlapping scales and rounded horns, speculated to have nostrils at the end to allow them to breathe while remaining submerged, these serpents bear similarities to dragons and specifically, the lindworm, for both have striking, shining scales and, more importantly, lair in water bodies. They are also believed to be born a dull colour that eventually develops into the fully-fledged golden luminescence of adulthood (Shuker, 1995). Though the linkage is at best tentative, it is interesting to keep in mind the similarities, as both creatures are phenotypically the same. When observed, no further than their necks or long, sinuous tails have been seen, although their bodies are believed to broaden out to allow for limbs. Though the ular tedong are theorised to be related to dinosaurs, it is not so hard to conceive the dragon family would fit in that same spectrum.

Peluda:
As the only survivor of the Great Flood (aside from the animals gathered on Noah's Ark), the peluda spends most of its time beside the rivers of France, as a reminder to itself of its victory. Coincidentally, a major river in the same region has been named Peluda, perhaps after its local residents (Nimoy, 1997).
Capable of breathing fire and spitting a sticky, venomous acid at its foes, the peluda is a fearless creature whose size was so great one particular peluda in the river Huisne flooded the banks on either side of the river every time it submerged (Shuker, 2004). Lacking wings, the peluda is earth-bound. However, the backs of these dragons are covered in poisonous spines and shaggy green fur (Nigg, 2002)- these spines can literally shoot out at anything that strays a little too close (Shuker, 2004). The peluda has four legs, a reptilian face and feet resembling those of a terrapin. Ironically, the European dragons strength is the peluda's downfall; the only weak spot of the peluda is its tail, which if cut off, kills the dragon instantly (Shuker, 2004).

Puk:
Similar in physical makeup to the small dragonet, the puk lives around residential areas and is considered lucky for it brings wealth to wherever it lairs (Cooper, 1992).

Salamander:
The small, four footed salamander (or salamandra [White, 1969]) possesses the most bizarre nature of all the dragons. Though usually diminutive in size, some (extant, amphibious) salamanders have been reported to grow to an incredible 2.4 m (8 ft) in length, though this is exceedingly rare (theshadowlands.net, 2004). Salamanders are very strong and untouchable by fire, and can usually be found lairing at the foot of volcanoes or seeking out the forges of blacksmiths. Because they extinguish fires, blacksmiths hunt these creatures when sighted around their forge to ensure the protection of their work (Nigg, 2002). The salamander itself is spotted and frequently portrayed in art with a line of stars down its back, and very cold- it is believed they seek out the heat to ease this perpetual freeze.
The 16th century Italian artist Benvenuto Cellini wrote in the "Life of Benvenuto Cellini" how, as a child, his father had spotted a salamander in the fireplace one evening and excitedly pointed the little dragon out to Cellini and his sister. After Cellini had had a good look, his father boxed him over the ear but, while soothing his child, explained; "My dear child, I do not give you that blow for any fault you have committed, but that you may recollect that the little creature you see in the fire is a salamander... (Bullfinch, year unknown, p. 333)."
The salamander is supposed to secrete a milky substance from its body, which resists the fire; according to Aristotle and Pliny, the salamander not only is immune to the flames but actively extinguishes them (Bullfinch, year unknown). The substance secreted from the salamanders body is known as "salamander's wool" (Nigg, 2002), a fire-resistant fabric that can be spun into clothes or envelopes to protect valuable objects (Bullfinch, year unknown). Because of this, Marco Polo once argued the salamander was not an animal but merely a substance, however it is suspected this fabric was actually the mineral asbestos, which was able to be sewn into cloth. The Emperor of India, Prester John and Pope Alexander III were among a few to have obtained a garment made from this precious substance. "This Salemandre berith wulle, of which is made cloth and gyrdles that may not brenne in the fyre." (Caxton, 1481, as quoted in White, 1969, p. 184.)
When a salamander climbs a tree, poison leaks from its skin and as the liquid seeps into the tree, the poison will infect the fruit and kill those who eat it; similarly, a pig infected by the same substance will live a normal life, but anyone who later eats the pig will grow sick (prior to inevitable death, the skin of an infected person develops a rash, shrivels, and their hair becomes thin and falls out [Shuker, 2004]) and die (Nigg, 2002). Salamanders can also infect water; 4 000 soldiers and 2 000 horses in India led by Alexander the Great were believed to have died after drinking from water that a salamander had fallen into (Shuker, 2004).
The salamander was believed to take some time to coat itself with this milky liquid; while hibernating during winter, salamanders are vulnerable and have been captured while sleeping. One particular salamander, having woken up only moments prior to being cast into a fire, had only a limited time to properly protect itself. As a result, the little dragon came out with a badly burnt tail and feet (Bullfinch, year unknown).

The salamander has been associated with witches, and the crackling of fire was once feared to be the sound of a salamander casting a curse over people and their land. The salamander was believed to be a physical representation of the playful nature of fire to alchemists, and this dragon was a recurring image in heraldry as a symbol of true courage (Nigg, 2002).
In "Night Thoughts", Dr Young compared a man not inspired by the beauty of the night sky to a salamander unaffected by the flames:

O, what a genuis must inform the skies!
And is Lorenzo's salamander-heart
Cold and untouched amid these sacred fires?

The pyrallis (also pyragones or pyrausta) closely resembles the salamander- insect-sized and with a chromatic, bronze sheen, the small creatures resemble an insectoid dragon with four legs and filmy, transparent wings (Shuker, 2004). The pyrallis is native to Cyprus and like the salamander, it dances in the heart of the burning fire, usually with others of its kind. Unlike the salamander however, the pyrallis depends directly on the fire for, should these tiny dragons stray too far from the flames, they expire (Shuker, 2004).

Scytale:
Preferring to spend its days lounging beneath the sun, the scytale (or scitalis) is a sluggish dragon famed for its hide (Nigg, 2002; White, 1969). Its scales are covered with beautiful, hypnotic markings that cause any onlooker to stop and stare in wonder at the intricate designs patterned over its back (Nigg, 2002), to which it owes its name scytale, from scitulus, meaning elegant (White, 1969). The scytales glowing skin is shed in winter to maintain the burning light of its scales, to be replaced by vibrant new skin colours and patterns that change annually, so that no two hides are alike.
As it is very slow, the scytale relies on its beautiful colours to attract prey; once it has ensnared a victim with its seductive appearance it attacks with its hot bite that is so fiery anyone bitten literally bursts into flames (Nigg, 2002; White, 1969). On the scytale shedding its skin, Lucan wrote on the Aphrodite of the dragon world:

And the Scytale herself, even now in the lands of the hoarfrost,
Is about to slough off her spot-speckled skin (White, 1969, p. 176).

Like the amphisbaena, the scytale has also been sighted in the heat of North Africa (Nigg, 2002), where it prefers the warmer climate and can soak up ample sun.

Tazelworm:
With the body of a long worm and the head and forelegs (few have been reported to have hindlegs also [Shuker, 2004]) of a cat, tazelworms (also spelt tatzelworm) have a fierce personality, attacking anything that crosses their path (Dragon Fantastic, 2001). Their scales are rumored to be so thick blades cannot pierce their hide, and the acidic breath of a tazelworm is noxious and lethal to other animals. Also known as the "clawed worm" or Stollenwurm, they are serpentine in form with long coils that aid in their supreme ability to jump metres in a single leap. Roughly 1.2- 1.5 m (4- 5 ft) long (Shuker, 2004), these dragons feast on smaller prey, jumping down at them from trees.
Tazelworms generally prefer to live in dark holes in higher altitudes, such as mountain tops, and some have been rumoured to be lairing in the Swiss Alps. Due to their alpine habitat, tazelworms are also called the "Tunnel Worm" and "Mountain Stump".
Tazelworm sightings were reported in Austria, Germany and Switzerland in the 1920s, and the most recent tazelworm sighting occurred in 1954 in Italy. A few Sicilian farmers claim to have killed the tazelworm as it had been eating their stock and was seen as a danger to their livelihood (Shuker, 2004).
In their most primal form, the tazelworm is held in great fear for the speed at which they can strike from an unseen place (Cooper, 1992), and there is a strong sense of mystique surrounding the beast, for the dragon borders on zoological possibility and superstitious myth.

Western Dragon:
Of the European world, the serpentine, six-limbed, fire-breathing Western dragon is the most prolific. Despite being completely outside the natural biological scheme of events, belief in the dragon was highly common in the past, especially during overly superstitious times.
The dragon was conceived from mythological tales of the revered and loathed snake, to which they have always been indirectly likened. The very word dragon (female version: dragoness [White, 1969]) was originally derived from a large serpent or snake in mythology, from the Greek drakon (female version: drakaina), and also derkomai (Fontenrose, 1959) or derkein, a serpent whose seeing gaze is like lightning (Byrne [ed], 1979).
During the Middle Ages (1100- c. 1340 AD [Encarta, 2003]) the dragon (or Draco) had reached its zenith. Featuring in bestiaries alongside other creatures both fantastical and real, they were known as "the biggest of all serpents, in fact of all living things on earth" (White, 1969, p. 165). The Western dragons strength lies in its tail; at the end of which they have a heavy club or spike, believed to be derived from the scorpion's poisonous telson sting which was greatly feared. Though the dragon is reptilian in appearance they have sinuous, long coils heavily plated with thick scales. These scales (which, when raised, shine like silver) are highly sought-after (Byrne [ed], 1979) and are notorious for their impenetrable strength. As a result, hunters or slayers would dispatch Western dragons with a lance down the throat (a tactic that originated with the Greek god Apollo) or with poison (Fontenrose, 1959). Their teeth are also removed for their value by hunters who track and kill dragons as they struggle with elephants, one of their greatest enemies (Byrne [ed], 1979).
Dragons have sinister, slitted eyes that appear to be constantly scheming some unknown, wicked plan. Their small mouths (White, 1969) are lined with triple rows of sharp teeth (Byrne [ed], 1979), their taloned hands with devastating claws, and their heads and back with horns and spines. The wings of a dragon, as portrayed in art, are usually rather small and appear useless, though records credit dragons with massive bat-like wings that go so far as to darken the sky, perhaps both physically and also by manner of oppression. Their wings are hypnotic and often have "eye spots" which, as the name suggests, are eye-like markings that when spread, trick and confuse the enemy into thinking they are surrounded (Shuker, 2004). Interestingly, dragons do not bite but rather, eat their prey by licking them with their rough tongue (Mermier, 1992).
The back of a dragon is laced with sharp spines and plates, and males of the species have golden, full-bristled beards. Dragons have the forked tongue of their snake ancestors, and are a yellowish, bronze-red colour in reflection of their heated nature, though red, grey and black dragons with green underbellies are also common (Byrne [ed], 1979). While the more lithe, serpentine dragons will often attack elephants and kill them by suffocating them (Allen & Griffiths, 1979), the fiercer dragons lairing in the mountains have heavier armour and will often venture into the waters to fish (Byrne [ed], 1979). These creatures are both flightless or able to fly; native earth-bound dragons represent the master of the ground, and an obstacle that must be overcome to win the guarded treasure they most certainly have stashed away (Cooper, 1992). Because their very nature drives them to feast on farm animals, maidens and demand human sacrifices on a regular basis, dragons generally played a large part in the sagas of heroes and conquerors, in the legends of Gods saints, and in knight-errantry and heraldry (Cooper, 1992).
The English term, drake, or fire-drake (from the Anglo-Saxon draca or Latin draco, which is similar to the flying dragon [Allen & Griffiths, 1979]), applies to those dragons which have the freedom of flight over their land-dwelling cousins. These dragons are generally the most feared, for their aerial attacks often leave villages and countrysides in ruins, and in the skies they are untouchable. Notorious for their hunger for human flesh, these dragons can be up to 18 m (60 ft) in length, and make their homes in secluded places where they will only venture out to hunt (Dragon Fantastic, 2001).
The dragon is heavily associated with fire, a greedy and consuming force (Davidson, 1964), and frequently appear as fire-breathing creatures of the land and sky. Euripides describes the dragon as breathing forth fire and slaughter; in the Old Testament Moses has fiery serpents and Isaiah a fiery flying serpent (Cooper, 1992). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes a terrible event of 793 AD (Dickinson, 1979, p. 19), where:

Here dire forewarnings were come over the land of the Northumbrians and sadly terrified the people. There were tremendous lightnings, and fiery dragons were seen fighting in the air.

Their nature and elemental alignment also reflects this greed, for the Western dragon is infamous for jealously protecting hoards of gold relentlessly, as detailed in many contemporary and ancient folktales, such as the story of Beowulf and the dragon. This fiery splendour is exemplified with the Norse Firedrake, a term that explicitly applies to fire-breathing dragons, which Beowulf described as, "the ravager of the darksome night" (Cooper, 1992, p.99). Synonymous with their bestial nature, the blood of a dragon is an acidic substance that is so deadly a mere drop can kill instantly, however if this blood is mixed with honey and oil, it can restore eyesight and hearing (Nigg, 2002).
Western dragons are said to wear a bright red stone called a Draconce, or Dragon-stone, on their foreheads; this gem (which also contained curative powers) was often sought after for the luck it endowed on the owner if it was removed before the dragon's death (Nigg, 2002). If it was removed after, however, the stone would become useless and turn black. (See the Dragon Properties essay for more on the Draconce.)
Both of these highly unstable properties are essentially a dangerous gamble on the borderline of good and evil, and represent both the untamable forces of nature and mankind's lustful attraction to such exotic things, perhaps also the unknown and unchartered darkness that lurks within the human mind.

In The Elizabethan Zoo, Edward Topsell writes of the dragon:

...dragons doe abide in deepe Caves and hollow places of the earth, and that some-times when they perceive moistnes in the ayre, they come out of theyr holes, and beating the ayre with their winges, as it were with the strokes of oares, they forsake the earth and flie aloft... dragons are the watchfull-keepers of Treasures.

Dragons come in many sizes and types within the Western frame, including:

     - The dragonet is a scaled-down variant of the Western dragon, ranging in size from finger length to 30 cm (one foot). Originating in Switzerland during the Middle Ages (Korenblat, 2004), dragonets mirror the appearance of the Western dragon exactly; from legs and wings, to claws, horns and spines and the ability to breathe fire. The size of a dragonet belies their power as they are extraordinarily deadly (Dragon Fantastic, 2001). These dragons gather and hunt in groups of four to five and live in mountain peaks, preferring the cooler air. Dragonets have been known to kill and eat the offspring of Western dragons, taking their place in the nest for some time in order to gain a free meal from an unsuspecting parent.
Like their larger kin, the blood of a dragonet is a highly toxic substance; a solitary dragonet reported to be roaming around Mount Pilatus, near Wilser in Switzerland, was slain by a man who'd been promised his freedom (after being banished for manslaughter) should he destroy the serpentine threat. He succeeded, but died soon after as he raised his sword in triumph and splattered himself with the dragonet's blood (Dragon Fantastic, 2001). This story was believed to be inspired by pterodactyl skeletons found near Mount Pilatus (Shuker, 2004), however this seems unlikely as there is nothing to suggest the bones were discovered prior to this story, or that the discoverers would have been able to visualise mere skeletal remains as belonging to a mighty flying reptile.
There was a man of that Town whose name was Winckelriedt, who was banished for man-slaughter: this man promised, if he might have his pardon, and be restored again to his former Inheritance, that he would combate with that dragon and by God's help destroy him: which thing was granted to him with great joyfulness. Wherefore he was recalled home, and in the presence of many people went forth to fight with the Dragon, whom he slew and overcame, whereat for joy he lifted up his sword imbrued in the Dragon's bloud, in token of victory, but the bloud distilled down from his sword upon his body, and caused him instantly to fall down dead.
(Edward Topsell quoted in Dickinson, 1979, p. 38.)

     - There is very little difference between the wyvern and its six-limbed relative; the two are so closely interlinked that history and mythology hardly separates them. Essentially, the wyvern has the same personality and properties of the six-limbed Western dragon, their only difference being the two front legs that wyverns lack. The wyvern's two legs resemble an eagle's talons (Cooper, 1992), and their wings usually end in two or three fingers which they use in place of forearms, while their impenetrable back and tail are barbed. Of the Western dragons, these are the real lords of the sky, as their expert flying is unmatched by the six-limbed variants of their race. They can also breathe fire, and often ravage the land with their flame.
Associated with the serpent, the wyvern is also known as the Saxon Wivere, a serpent (Cooper, 1992). As a symbol of alchemy, the wyvern represents matter in its original (untransmutated) form. Wyverns appear frequently in heraldry, and are perhaps the most symbolic form of the European dragon (Shuker, 2004). Found throughout Europe, they are famed in Mordiford, in Herefordshire, England, where a baby wyvern befriended a young girl. A painting of this wyvern adorned the Mordiford church until the wyvern's man-eating reputation preceded it and forced it to be removed in c. 1811. In previous years wyverns had been associated with Satan in folklore and general belief, an opinion that was voiced in the Flemish manuscript dating from 1448, the Liber Floridus (Shuker, 2004).
As demonstrated in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle quote above, wyverns fight one another as do many of their draconic siblings, going so far as to take pleasure in slaying others of their own kind. Because of their bloodlust, they are often depicted as a symbol of envy, famine, war and hatred (Dragon Fantastic, 2001).

Generally speaking, the dragon is a heterogeneous creature; dragons come in a range of sizes and the different types contrast markedly from one another, creating a rich diversity that is unmatched in the fantastical and real animal kingdom.

Worm:
Of the European dragons, the worm (also wyrm, wurm, or serpent "that great worm" [Cooper, 1992]) is the ancient ancestor of the famous Western dragon. With ties to the life-bearing element water, and by lairing deep in the earth guarding precious gems and gold (some worms wrap themselves around hills, such as the famous Lambton Worm whose coils formed Worm Hill [Nigg, 2002]), the worms natural ties reflect its paternal role. As an ambivalent figure, the worm has since been associated with the underworld and the renewal of life (Cooper, 1992; Davidson, 1964); some worms shed their skin, and if a worm is cut in half, the two ends rejoin (White, 1969).
Due to their name, there may be some initial confusion when distinguishing these serpentine dragons from the smaller, common garden worm. However the serpent dragon is layered with steel-hard scales synonymous with dragon kind, and worms are also capable of breathing fire and, most notably, grow to a massive size. On top of this, they have long fangs and, for the few with limbs, also have deadly claws. As they spend most of their time beneath the earth their eyesight is quite poor, though they often successfully rejuvenate their own vision by eating fennel or (for those that can) by shedding their skin (White, 1969). Except in the case of elephants the worm is fearless; after restricting the elephant with its coils and inflicting grievous damage, the elephant falls over and crushes the worm to death (Allen & Griffiths, 1979). This strange animosity was a trait that continued with later dragons.
The worm's scales are so hard and thick they cannot be pierced; instead only the soft throat and underbelly can be attacked. To slay a worm, spiked armour must be worn; the young John Lambton, while out fishing one day, caught the famous Lambton worm which terrorized the village of Washington in County Durham, England. The worm was killed while Lambton was under the protection of such armour.

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