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The sections were then floated in PBS and quenched with 30% methanol and hydrogen peroxide to eliminate endogenous peroxidase activity. Pharmacological and clinical studies. Edited by: Lane TE, Carson M, Bergmann C, Wyss-Coray T.
Cutting off blood flow to the area of the bite may cause more tissue damage, says Calello. Such a fall in blood pressure would be debilitating in conjunction with blood loss and would render the envenomed prey unable to escape.
Venom: Wikis - Finally, the gel piece was removed and the supernatant was dried down in the SpeedVac® for 20 minutes.
Background Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ALS is a disease affecting the central nervous system that is either sporadic or familial origin and causing the death of motor neurons. One of the genetic factors contributing to the etiology of ALS is mutant SOD1 mtSOD1 , which induces vulnerability of motor neurons through protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage, cytoskeletal abnormalities, defective axonal transport, glutamate excitotoxicity, inadequate growth factor signaling, and neuroinflammation. Bee venom has been used in the practice of Oriental medicine and evidence from the literature indicates that BV plays an anti-inflammatory or anti-nociceptive role against inflammatory reactions associated with arthritis and other inflammatory diseases. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether bee venom suppresses motor neuron loss and microglial cell activation in hSOD1 G93A mutant mice. Methods Bee venom BV was bilaterally injected subcutaneously into a 14-week-old 98 day old male hSOD1 G93A animal model at the Zusanli ST36 acupoint, which is known to mediate an anti-inflammatory effect. For measurement of motor activity, rotarod test was performed and survival statistics were analyzed by Kaplan-Meier survival curves. The effects of BV treatment on anti-neuroinflammation of hSOD1 G93A mice were assessed via immunoreactions using Iba 1 as a microglia marker and TNF-± antibody. Activation of ERK, Akt, p38 MAP Kinase MAPK , and caspase 3 proteins was evaluated by western blotting. Results BV-treated mutant hSOD1 transgenic mice showed a decrease in the expression levels of microglia marker and phospho-p38 MAPK in the spinal cord and brainstem. Interestingly, treatment of BV in symptomatic ALS animals improved motor activity and the median survival of the BV-treated group 139 ± 3. Furthermore, we found that BV suppressed caspase-3 activity and blocked the defects of mitochondrial structure and cristae morphology in the lumbar spinal cord of hSOD1 G93A mice at the symptomatic stage. Therefore, a safer and more effective therapy for ALS patients is needed in order to reduce the pain associated with this disease. Most ALS patients have the sporadic form of the disease while 5-10% of ALS cases are of the familial type. An animal model of ALS has been characterized in mice that carry the mutated hSOD1 gene with a glycine to alanine substitution at the 93 rd codon SOD1 G93A. Previous findings point towards the critical involvement of microglia in the development of motor neuron disease; however the nature of microglial-neuronal interactions that lead to motor neuron degeneration remains unknown. Bee venom BV , which is also known as apitoxin, is extracted from honeybees and is commonly used in Oriental medicine. However, the mechanism by which these anti-inflammatory properties relieve the neuroinflammation associated with neurodegenerative disease is not clear. In order to explore this therapeutic mechanism, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of BV on motor function and survival in SOD1 G93A mutant mice. The present study showed decreased levels of TNF-± and the deactivation of p38 MAPK downstream of the TNF-± signaling pathway in both the brainstem and spinal cord of hSOD1 G93A mice after treatment with BV in the hind limbs at the ST36 acupoint. Interestingly, BV treatment reduced the number of microglial cells and astrocytes, and dramatically increased the expression of MAP2 in motor-related regions of the brainstem and spinal cord in comparison with age-matched hSOD1 G93A control mice. Additionally, we showed that BV suppressed caspase-3 activity and reduced the disruption of mitochondrial structure and cristae morphology in the lumbar spinal cord of hSOD1 G93A mice. Furthermore, BV treatment improved the motor coordination and prolonged the life span of familial mutant ALS animals at a symptomatic stage. Based on these findings, we suggest that BV has a neuroprotective effect against motor neuron cell death and suppresses neuroinflammation-induced disease progression in symptomatic ALS mice model. Methods Animals All mice were handled in accordance with the guidelines of the United States National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD. The protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of the Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine. The hSOD G93A mice developed the initial signs of neuromuscular deficits, such as leg tremors and loss of the hindpaw extension reflex, at approximately 15 weeks of age. At 16 weeks, they showed marked locomotor impairment with paralysis and muscular atrophy of the hind limbs. These animals died due to respiratory failure at 18-20 weeks of age. The 14-week-old transgenic mice were considered to be symptomatic; mice of this age were used for the study. All mice were kept in standard housing with free access to water and standard rodent chow. Bee venom treatment Bee venom was purchased from Sigma St. Louis, MO and diluted with saline. At a dose of 0. BV treatment was performed two times a week at a dose of 0. Behavioral analysis rotarod test Mice were trained for 1 week in order for them to acclimate to the apparatus. After training of the hSOD1 G93A mice, their basal motor activity was measured with a rotarod apparatus Ugo, Basil, Italy. Each animal underwent three trials and the average time spent on the rod was determined for each group. Rotarod testing was conducted at the same time to reduce environmental variables such as light cycle and temperature. Mice were then sacrificed to reduce further pain from respiratory failure according to animal care guidelines. The life span analysis was carried out in male SOD1 G93A mice. Survival statistics were analyzed by Kaplan-Meier survival curves by Prism 4. Values were analyzed by a one-way ANOVA followed by a Dunn's multiple-comparison test. All statistics were performed and graphs were developed using Prism 4. Tissue processing and immunohistochemistry At 18 days after treatment with BV or saline, hSOD1 G93A mice were deeply anesthetized with pentobarbital. They were transcardially perfused with phosphate-buffered saline PBS , followed by a perfusion with a fixative solution containing 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS. The spinal cord and brain were dissected out and fixed overnight in 4% paraformaldehyde at 4°C, transferred to 30% sucrose, and then frozen. The spinal cord and brainstem were embedded in OCT compound and serially cut on a cryostat into 40-¼m thick coronal sections. The sections were then floated in PBS and quenched with 30% methanol and hydrogen peroxide to eliminate endogenous peroxidase activity. After blocking in 5% normal goat serum at room temperature, sections were incubated with the primary antibodies, which included Iba-1 Wako, Osaka, Japan at 1:5000 or TNF-± Cell Signal, Beverly, MA at 1:100. All tissue sections were rinsed in PBST PBS with 0. Following incubation, all sections were rinsed and stained using Vectastain ABC kits Vector, Burlingame, CA according to the manufacturer's instructions. For visualization, 3, 3'-diaminobenzidine DAB -H 2O 2 substrate was used with a hematoxylin counterstain. After rinsing, all samples were dehydrated in increasing concentrations of ethanol, cleared in xylene, and coverslipped using Permount mounting medium Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA. Immunostained tissues were observed with a light microscope Olympus, Tokyo, Japan. Cell counting for immunoreactive cells was performed using an image analysis software IMT i-solution, Hackettstown, NJ. Western blot At 14 days after treatment with BV or saline, brains and spinal cords were dissected and homogenized in RIPA buffer 50 mM Tris-Cl pH 7. Homogenized tissues were centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 20 min at 4°C. Proteins were quantified using the BCA assay kit Pierce, Rockford, IL. Samples were electrophoresed through SDS-polyacrylamide gels and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. Blots were blocked with 5% non-fat milk in TBS for 1 h prior to incubation with antibodies. Various primary antibodies were utilized in this study, including anti-SOD1 Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA , anti-tubulin Abcam, Cambridge, UK , anti-Akt Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA , anti-pAkt Cell Signaling , anti-p38 Cell Signaling , anti-phospho-p38 Cell Signaling , anti-Iba 1 Wako, Osaka, Japan , and anti-active caspase-3 Calbiochem. Blots were probed with HRP-conjugated antibodies SantaCruz, Santa Cruz, CA and developed with enhanced chemiluminescence ECL reagents Amersham Pharmacia, Piscataway, NJ. Transmission Electron Microscopy TEM BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice and age-matched controls were sacrificed and perfused with 2% glutaraldehyde. Statistical analysis Results are expressed as means ± SEM values. Statistical evaluations were conducted using the Mann-Whitney U test for comparisons between BV-treated and age-matched untreated hSOD1 G93A mice. A t-test was used to compare the immunoblotting and immunohistochemical data between the BV-treated mice and the age-matched untreated hSOD1G93A mice. P values less than 0. All analyses were performed with SPSS 12. Results To determine the effects of BV on the survival and motor activity of hSOD1 G93A mice, BV 0. As shown in Figure , the BV-treated hSOD1 G93A group displayed a 1. Furthermore, we observed that BV-treated mice had a delay in disease onset and paralysis compared to saline-treated hSOD1 G93A mice. Next, we examined the survival rate to determine whether BV treatment prolonged the life span of hSOD1 G93A mice. The expected life span was assessed by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. The median survival of the BV-treated group 139 ± 3. The Kaplan-Meier probability of survival analysis showed that the BV-treated group had a significantly improved survival rate 160 ± 3. However, there was no significant difference in body weight before and after BV treatment data not shown. These results indicate that BV acted therapeutically against the onset of motor dysfunction as well as against disease progression in hSOD1 G93A mice. Figure 1 Diagram of the experiment schedule. At the beginning of the experiment, the animals were randomly divided into two groups: the saline-treated group control and the BV-treated group. Saline- or BV- 0. Two days after the first saline or BV treatment, saline or BV 0. A rotarod test for the measurement of motor activity was performed from day 91 to day 114. For the survival test, saline- and BV-treated mice were observed until they reached 160 days old. Mice used for the biochemical study were sacrificed 18 days after the first saline- or BV treatment. IHC: immunohistochemistry, WB: western blotting Figure 2 Effects of BV on rotarod performance of hSOD1 G93A mice. BV delays the onset of motor impairment in hSOD1 G93A transgenic mice. Values represent the mean ± SEM. Significantly improved motor performance was evident at most time points between 7-9 days after BV treatment as compared with controls. S: second, Con: saline treated-mice, BV: bee venom treated-mice. Figure 3 BV prolongs the survival of hSOD1 G93A transgenic mice. A Kaplan-Meyer analysis illustrates the significant benefits from BV 0. Mice were bilaterally injected with saline open circles or BV closed circles at ST36 subcutaneously. The mean, median, minimum, and maximum age of death in saline-treated hSOD1 G93A mice are 120, 117, 107, 143 day, respectively. The mean, median, minimum, and maximum age of death in BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice are 139, 139, 118, and 160 day, respectively. Con: saline-treated mice, BV: bee venom-treated mice. BV reduces microglial cell activation and neuroinflammation Microglia activation can be observed in virtually all CNS pathologies including ALS. To demonstrate whether BV affected neuroinflammation in a familial ALS animal model, we studied the relationship between microglia activation and inflammatory factors in symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice. For this experiment, BV or saline was injected at ST36 in 14-week-old hSOD1 G93A mice. The effect of BV on activated microglial cells monitored using the Iba-1 antibody in both the brainstem and lumbar spinal cord of symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice. As shown in Figure , the expression level of Iba-1 was dramatically reduced in both the brainstem and spinal cord of BV-treated mice in comparison with the control group. Next, we immunostained lumbar spinal cord sections from BV- or saline-treated mice Figure. At a low magnification, Iba-1 immunoreactivity was detected in both the white and gray matter of the spinal cord in hSOD1 G93A transgenic mice Figure. At a higher magnification, Iba-1 immunoreactivity in the ventral horn of BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice was significantly reduced ~2. In the brainstem of mutant SOD1 mice, Iba-1 immunoreactive cells were detected as well Figure. BV caused an approximate 2. Figure 4 Immunoreactivity IR and western blotting for Iba1 in the brainstem and spinal cord. A representative blot of Iba-1 is shown significant reduction of Iba I in the brainstem and spinal cord of BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice A. Quantitative analysis of immunoblot. The image is representative of three independent experiments. The optical density was measured for each band, and values for Iba-1 were compared with tubulin after correcting for the total protein content. The Results of the densitometric quantifications are the means ± SEM of triplicate samples. The data were analyzed using a t-test. Iba1 IR of the lumbar L4 spinal cord of hSOD1 G93A mice treated with saline B or BV C. Boxes indicate high magnification views of the ventral horn region. Iba1 IR of the facial nucleus of the brainstem from saline- D or BV-treated transgenic mice E. Data are shown as the mean ± SEM. Data were analyzed with a t-test. BV: bee venom, BS: brainstem, SP: spinal cord In order to determine whether BV suppressed neuroinflammation by inhibiting of the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-±, we further examined the level of TNF-± by immunohistochemistry in BV- or saline-treated familial ALS mice. As expected, TNF-± immunoreactivity in hSOD1 G93A mice was largely confined to the facial nucleus of the brain stem and motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord Figure , and. Interestingly, BV caused a significant 4-fold reduction in TNF-± immunoreactivity in both the brainstem and lumbar spinal cord Figure , and. These results suggest that BV treatment may be involved in an anti-neuroinflammatory responses that reduces motor neuron degeneration and prolongs the life span of hSOD1 G93A transgenic mice at the symptomatic stage. Figure 5 Immunohistochemical study of TNF-± in the brainstem and anterior horns of the lumbar L4 spinal cord in BV- or saline-treated familial mutant SOD1 mice. TNF-± IR is significantly reduced in the facial nucleus of the brainstem from BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice A, B. High magnification of boxes facial nucleus in A and B C, D. In the anterior horn of the spinal cord, the number of TNF-±-immunoreactive cells was increased in hSOD1 G93A mice, but it was reduced by treatment with BV E, F. BV treatment reduced significantly TNF-a immunoreactivity in the brainstem G and lumbar spinal cord H. Data were analyzed with a t-test. To assess whether BV affected mitochondrial cell death in symptomatic mutant SOD1 mice, we performed immunoblotting analysis of homogenates of the spinal cord and brainstem using a caspase-3 antibody. Expression levels of the active caspase-3 fragment were markedly increased in the lumbar spinal cord of hSOD1 G93A mice, but caspase-3 expression was maintained at a very low level in the spinal cord of BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice. More specifically, caspase-3 expression was found to be reduced by 80% relative to the level observed in untreated hSOD1 G93A mice Figure. Figure 6 The effect of BV on mitochondrial dysfunction in symptomatic mutant hSOD1 G93A mice. The image is representative of three independent experiments. The optical density was measured for each band, and values for Iba 1 were compared with tubulin after correcting for the total protein content. The Results of the densitometric quantifications are the means ± SEM of triplicate samples. The data were analyzed using a t-test. The expression level of active caspase-3 protein in the lumbar spinal cord was dramatically reduced by treatment with BV in symptomatic hSOD1 G93A transgenic mice. Transmission electron microscopy TEM of mitochondria in the lumbar spinal cord of saline- or BV-treated symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice B-E. In symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice, mitochondria displayed vacuolation arrow, B and broken cristae arrow, D. However, BV treatment prohibited collapse of the mitochondrial structure and loss of cristae in familial symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice C, E. BV: bee venom, BS: brainstem, SP: spinal cord Next, we asked whether BV affected the mitochondrial ultrastructure in the lumbar spinal cord of symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice. We used transmission electron microscopy TEM to visualize mitochondria from the anterior horn of the lumbar spinal cord from BV- or saline-treated mutant SOD1 G93A mice. In symptomatic familial hSOD1 G93A mice, mitochondria displayed vacuolation and broken cristae Figure. By contrast, mitochondrial cristae were shaped as compact tubules in an orderly fashion in the ventral horn of the spinal cord from BV-treated Figure. These studies demonstrated that BV serves a protective role in regulating mitochondrial structure and cristae morphology. Next, we asked whether BV-induced signal transduction pathways affected neuron death and gliosis in hSOD1 G93A mice. As shown in Figure , Western bolt analysis revealed an increase in the expression of the neuronal cell marker MAP2 in both the brainstem and lumbar spinal cord of BV-treated symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice. In addition, GFAP was significantly reduced in the BV-treated brainstem and spinal cord when compared with age-matched familial mutant SOD1 mice Figure. These data suggest that BV-treatment at ST36 had a neuroprotective effect via activation of a cell survival signal transduction pathway, which reduced ALS-associated motor neuron death from gliosis and neuroinflammation. Figure 7 BV treatment reduces the expression of GFAP protein and prevents neuronal cell death via modulation of cell survival signaling pathways. A representative of Western blot analysis shows increased expression of the MAP protein A , which is reduced in BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice at the symptomatic stage B. The intensities of the immunoreactive bands were compared to the corresponding bands from the brainstem or spinal cord of saline-treated mice A. The expression level of phospho-Akt protein was increased in the brain stem and lumbar spinal cord by BV treatment E. The amount of phospho-ERK protein was augmented after BV treatment in tissue extracts from the brainstem and spinal cord of hSDO1 G93A mice F. Quantitative analysis of immunoblot. The image is representative of three independent experiments. The optical density was measured for each band, and values for Iba-1 were compared with tubulin after correcting for the total protein content. The Results of the densitometric quantifications are the means ± SEM of triplicate samples. The data were analyzed using a t-test. BV: bee venom, BS: brainstem, SP: spinal cord The effect of BV on cell survival signal transduction pathways To evaluate the mechanism by which BV mediates this neuroprotective activity, we examined the expression levels of phospho-p38 MAPK and several anti-apoptotic markers, such as phospho-Akt and phospho-ERK, in symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice. Western blotting experiments using anti-phospho-p38 or Ser435-phospho-specific Akt1 antibodies demonstrated activation of Akt-1 and deactivation of phospho-p38 in the spinal cord and brainstem following treatment with BV Figure. Furthermore, BV-treatment dramatically increased the expression of phospho-ERK in the spinal cord and brainstem of familial mutant SOD1 mice Figure. These biochemical results support that previous observations indicating that BV at ST36 improved motor activity and increased survival rates of hSOD1 G93A mice Figures and. Discussion The molecular targets and signaling pathways influencing paralysis in ALS are not completely understood. To date, several pathogenic mechanisms have been identified that contribute to atrophy and paralysis in ALS patients, including protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage, cytoskeletal abnormalities, defective axonal transport, glutamate excitotoxicity, inadequate growth factor signaling, and neuroinflammation. In this study, we demonstrated that administration of BV at a symptomatic stage of disease progression resulted in increased motor activity and a prolonged life span in comparison with age-matched control mice. Furthermore, we observed that BV prevented neuroinflammation-induced death of motor neurons and alleviated mitochondrial disruption in symptomatic SOD1 G93A transgenic mice. Microglia in the CNS are immunologically active and capable of responding to events associated with formation of the neuronal-glial environment. Moreover, evidence indicating that microglial cells are involved in the progression of ALS pathogenesis has emerged from several lines of investigation. Interestingly, we found that BV administration at the ST36 acupoint significantly attenuated neuroinflammatory events triggered by TNF-± and microglial cell activation in motor function related-structures within the spinal cord and brainstem Figures ,. These findings suggest that BV treatment may be useful for combating inflammation in ALS patients. Since caspase-3 activation leads to microglial cell activation and mitochondrial dysfunction, we examined whether caspase-3 inactivation was involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of BV. We found that the levels of active caspase-3 were significantly reduced in the lumbar spinal cord of hSOD1 G93A mice following BV treatment Figure. Furthermore, the administration of BV prevented the disruption of mitochondrial cristae and vacuolization in the ventral horn of hSOD1 G93A mice at the symptomatic stage Figure. This result suggests that BV treatment had an anti-inflammatory effect on the CNS of familial mutant SOD1 mice. Thus, we hypothesized that BV-treatment reduced motor neuron death and mitochondrial dysfunction by preventing neuroinflammation. Supporting this idea, BV treatment significantly increased the expression of a neuronal cell marker and reduced GFAP levels when compared with age-matched hSOD1 G93A transgenic mice Figure. With respect to the molecular mechanism underlying BV, we observed that BV treatment triggered a reduction in the activation of p38 MAPK, which is downstream of the TNF-± signaling pathway in the spinal cord of hSOD1mice Figure. In contrast, the levels of phospho-AKT and phospho-ERK were increased in both the brainstem and spinal cord of BV-treated hSOD1 mice compared to those of control mice Figure. These results demonstrate that BV-treatment of familial mutant hSOD1 transgenic mice caused a reduction in pro-inflammatory cytokines and an increase in phospho-Akt and ERK, which may inhibit motor neuronal cell death by preventing neuroninflammation and consequently delay disease onset. Conclusions This study presented that the improved motor activity and prolonged life span of BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice were attributable to the neuroprotective effect provide by reduced levels of cytokines, which are typically released by activated microglia and astrocytes. Furthermore, the present study illustrated that BV treatment prevented mitochondrial disruption and served a neuroprotective role in vivo via the activation of cell survival signal transduction pathways, such as the PI3K and ERK pathways, which subsequently protected against the death of motor neurons in symptomatic hSOD1 G93A mice. Further challenges remaining will be to determine whether bee venom treatment at other acupoints presents neuro-protective effects against neuroinflammation in symptomatic ALS mice and find the potential bioactive element of bee venom components in vivo and in vitro. JHJ carried out the rotarod test, immunohistochemistry and performed statistical analyses. SML and HSH participated in the tissue processing of animal for all experiments. SCY contributed technical expertise for TEM. MSL and SMC helped editing of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. All data collection and observations were completed by a blinded observer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Int J Mol Med. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. Central Nervous System Diseases and Inflammation. Edited by: Lane TE, Carson M, Bergmann C, Wyss-Coray T. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA.
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Dietary Aloe vera supplementation improves facial wrinkles and elasticity and it increases the type I procollagen gene expression in human skin in vivo. Here, we examine the feeding ecology of V. A representative blot of Iba-1 is shown significant reduction of Iba I in the brainstem and spinal cord of BV-treated hSOD1 G93A mice A. Methods: In a prospective study, 19 European centers included patients starting on VIT for systemic reactions to insect stings. Analysis on these three parameters revealed that a statistically significant difference was observed only at week 12. Purified bee venom was lyophilized by freeze-drying and refrigerated at 4°C for later use.
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