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nedjelja , 23.12.2018.Devojke Za Upoznavanje
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Le résultat de cette réaction est une couche de verre extręmement résistante qui protčgera la voiture contre les micros égratignures, les rayons UV, la décoloration et la perte de lustre. Męme si le véhicule est neuf, il vaut mieux ne pas sauter cette étape puisque la peinture aurait pu ętre contaminée lors du transport du véhicule ou de son séjour dans la cour du concessionnaire. Od tog trenutke sve poruke odlaze toj, novoj devojci.
Ensuite les deux autres épisodes diffusés ŕ la suite ont réuni respectivement 6,73 millions de téléspectateurs, et 5,62 millions de téléspectateurs pour le dernier épisode diffusé ŕ partir de 22 h 35 ce qui peut expliquer une audience moins forte lors de la soirée de lancement de la série , soit un trčs bon lancement pour une série diffusée sur. Il est médecin légiste ŕ l'institut médico-légal de New York. S'il s'intéresse d'aussi prčs ŕ la mort, c'est parce qu'il cherche un remčde qui le « guérirait » de son immortalité.
Menu - Il dérivait dans les eaux de l'Amper jusqu'ŕ ce que Rudy Steiner ne plonge dans l'eau glacée de décembre 1941 et, manquant de se noyer, ne le lui rapporte. Henry affirme ainsi avoir travaillé comme et avoir reçu son doctorat ŕ l'.
Le 12 juin 1804 parut une annonce dans le Journal de Rouen. On recherchait les descendants d'un couple marié un sičcle plus tôt. DEMANDES PARTICULIERES On désirerait savoir s'il existe des descendants de Martin Vrel et de Marguerite Huet, originaires de la commune d'Epinay ou de Sainte-Marguerite-sur-Duclair, s'il y en a, ils sont priés de s'adresser au citoyen Huet, homme de loi demeurant faubourg Bouvreuil, n° 8, qui a quelque chose d'important ŕ leur communiquer. Nous avons trčs vite retrouvé ce couple. C'est ŕ Sainte-Marguerite que Martin Vrel et Marguerite Huet se sont unis le 23 février 1705. Leur acte de mariage ne fait pas apparaître le nom de leurs parents. Ce jour-lŕ, plusieurs noces défilčrent dans l'église. Les enfants de Martin Vrel et Marguerite Huet 1 Le 3 janvier 1706 leur vient un premier enfant baptisé Michel Martin par Catherine Héricher et un vannier dont on ignorera le nom, le registre ayant été rongé par le temps. L'aîné des Vrel épousera le 18 février 1732, ŕ Sainte-Marguerite Marie Anne Vautier, fille d'Adrien et Marie Roger. Martin Vrel et Marguerite Huet assisteront ŕ ce mariage qui leur donnera des descendants... Mais, par paresse, le curé de Sainte-Marguerite ne mentionne pas toujours les parrains des nouveaux nés. Ce garçon est mort cinq jours plus tard. En 1710, Martin Vrel et son épouse semblent résider ŕ Saint-Wandrille, paroisse voisine. Vers cette époque leur vient une fille : 3 Marguerite Vrel qui épousera le 7 février 1750, ŕ Saint-Paër, Pierre Morel. Le 3 février 1742, ŕ Bouville, elle épousera Pierre Fillatre, fils de Jean et Catherine Bossel. Martin Vrel, le pčre, est dit décédé. Quant ŕ la mariée, elle habite Saint-Paër. Ce couple aura aussi postérité... L'un meurt aprčs avoir été ondoyé. En revanche, l'autre survit et on lui donne le prénom de Pierre. Mais elle meurt ŕ 23 jours le 30 janvier suivant. Faut-il comprendre que le premier est mort? Ce Pierre-lŕ est baptisé en tout cas le lendemain. La mort de Martin Vrel et Marguerite Huet Curieusement, on ne retrouve pas dans les registres proches de Duclair la mort de Martin Vrel qui intervint entre 1732 et 1742. En revanche, Marguerite Huet mourut ŕ Sainte-Marguerite le 16 janvier 1746. Elle avait 72 ans. Les témoins de son décčs furent Martin Vérard et Pierre Fillatre, son gendre. Les descendants de Martin Vrel et Marguerite Huet Si l'on s'en tient au seul Michel Martin Vrel, fils aîné du couple recherché, il mourut ŕ Sainte-Marguerite le 5 février 1755 ŕ l'âge de 40 ans. On l'inhuma le lendemain et un Jacques Vrel apposa sa signature. Michel Martin laissait plusieurs descendants : Marie Anne née en 1733, épouse Griel, Jacques né en 1735, Anne en 1742, Marie Rose en 1746, épouse Eudes... Bref, voila bien du monde et tous ces gens engendrčrent ŕ leur tour. Ce qui nous permet de répondre positivement ŕ la petite annonce de 1804. Oui, Martin Vrel et Marguerite Huet avaient des descendants. Quiz Maintenant, qu'avait donc de si important ŕ dire cet homme de loi aux descendants de Martin Vrel. Ce pauvre Martin, pauvre misčre, n'avait sans doute pas laissé grand chose ŕ son décčs. Pourquoi, cinquante ans aprčs sa mort, recherchait-on ses héritiers naturels? Le nom de cet homme de loi, Huet, comme Marguerite, a-t-il un quelconque rapport? Agissait-il pour retrouver les lointains ayant-droits d'un défunt mort sans hoirs? A vous de nous donner votre avis...
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Henry et son épouse Abigail l'ont adopté alors qu'il était encore enfant. Son aménagement est désormais plus logique. L'analyse de son sang lors d'une enquęte par l'équipe de Morgan a révélé qu'il a contracté au cours de sa vie plusieurs maladies aujourd'hui disparues, comme la peste bubonique. En , la série est diffusée du au sur , en , du au sur , et au depuis le sur le réseau. Ime: Mona Godiste: 1975 Grad: Zrenjanin Opis: Bivsi kaze da sam nezasita. Zato nemojte da propustite ovu priliku i postanete naš član. C'était le carnet de croquis de Max Vandenburg, qu'il avait nommé La Secoueuse de Mots - Petit Recueil de pensées pour Liesel Meminger.
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Baba me je zamolila da odem i uberem par kukuruza kako bi nam skuvala za rucak. Danijela je pocela rukom preko moje da ga miluje a on je poceo da stenje. Znao sam da je Kosta. Sagnula sam glavu u njegovo krilo i pocela ga lagano pusiti na sto je i Danijela pocela da stenje pa sam joj ga brzo prepustila.
Proslo je par meseci kad se Marko ponovo javio : - Ej, da nisi u Bg-u sledece nedelje? Kad je zavrsila sa satiranjem rekla mi je da isperem kosu.
Erotske Priče - Uvek sam bio sa dobrim ribama i imao uspeha. Tetka Marija se udala i dobila sina, Nikolu.
Počeo je da me svlači. Da ga opustimo već jednom. Nakon što je Kosta to izgovorio, meni se učinilo da čujem neke glasove nedaleko od nas. Seks na javnom mestu nije bila dobra ideja... Ležao sam na krevetu u apartmanu. Moje društvo je otišlo na plažu, a ja sam opet odglumio da mi nije dobro. Razmišljao sam o incidentu koji se desio juče. Znao sam da je Kosta. Posle nekoliko sekundi, ušao je u apartman. Ležim sam u mraku u stanu polugo,i gledam tv. Vrtim kanale i zaustavim se na nekom domaćem erotskom posle ponoći. Puca sve od tucanja i meni se javi želja. Ali koga zvati, ispao sam iz fazona,boo sam oženjen i veran. Brojeve nemam a i neznam koja je gde i kakva. Vidim na tv u ispod idu oglasi, uglavnom muški. Rekoh što da ne pa šta može loše da bude. Poslah sms i dobih odgovor. U masi ljudi ga tražim, znam da ću prepoznati taj neodoljivi osmeh, te tople oči. Samo čekam da se pojavi i ulepša mi ovo prohladno decembarsko jutro. Razmišljam o načinu na koji smo započeli naše dopisivanje, sasvim slučajno na nekom neuglednom sajtu. I eto, dve usamljene duše su prepoznale jedna drugu. Sve zu zajedno radile. Volele su istu muziku, iste glumce, pratile iste trendove. Tetka Marija se udala i dobila sina, Nikolu. Mama je bila jako srecna zbog nje i cesto ih je posecivala. Nikola je obozavao moju majku. Nakon nekoliko godina, mama je upoznala tatu, rodila se ogromna ljubav izmedju njih i nije im trebalo dugo da rese da se vencaju. Trazili su mesto gde ce da zive i bas kuca do tetka Marije se prodavala. Negde duboko u sebi sam postajala sve nemirnija. Osecala sam se kao dete koje stoji pored stola i posmatra prelepu cokoladnu tortu ukrasenu velikim slojem slaga ali je suvise malo da bi moglo da je dohvati i u njoj uziva. A da stvar bude jos gora, zna koliko je torta ukusna jer jos oseca u ustima ukus fila koji mu je mama dala da proba… Eto, bas tako je bilo i meni. Pomisao na Mileta uvek mi je kamenila kitu i vracala ukus njegove kite u ustima. Proslo je par meseci kad se Marko ponovo javio : - Ej, da nisi u Bg-u sledece nedelje? To mjesto je naravno na osami, dugo beskrajno polje i rijeka pored nas. Nikada ne izlazimo iz auta nego samo tu sjedimo. Znam ja kako to kod nas ide, ali ipak priđem na njegovu stranu. Svaki nas susret bio je oluja strasti kojoj smo se oboje rado prepustali. Nista nam nije smetalo da se jedno drugom u potpunosti predamo kada god smo bili u prilici. A trudili smo se da ih pravimo sto vise. Tih dana bili smo oboje dosta zauzeti. Dugo smo dogovarali gdje ćemo krenuti a onda je ostala na kraju destinacija u Crnu Goru i to u Budvu. Po stizanju na destinaciju iznajmili smo apartman u privatnom smještaju u predgrađu Budve prema plaži Jaz. Prvog dana smo se malo odmarali od puta i uveče smo sa vlasnikom apartmana pili kafu i razgovarali o odmoru,odnosno upoznavali smo se. Zelela sam da se sklonim od svih i da budem sama. Otisla sam u Italiju. Ceo odmor mi je bilo lep, ali posebno jedan dan na plazi. Nasla sma neko udaljeno mesto, gde nikog nije bilo. Bila sam okruzena stenama, imala i lep pristup plicaku. Bila sam u cudu da bas nikog tu nije bilo. Rasirila sam peskir, namazala se kremom i legla da se suncam. Imala sam na sebi jedan narandzasti bikini sa cvetovima. Odjednom sam videla jednog starca kako mi se priblizava. Baba me je zamolila da odem i uberem par kukuruza kako bi nam skuvala za rucak. Bilo je dosta sparno pa sam na sebi imala jednu letnju sarenu haljinicu. Nije bila previse kratka. Dok sam uzimala kukuruze odjednom se pojavio neki covek. Imao je oko 50 godina. Cutali smo jos neko vreme. Vec godinu dana zivim na Malti. Dinu sam upoznao na plazi jedno vece,prisla mi i pitala da li imam rizlu. Nikad nikog nije direktno napao, ali nekoliko zena je pricalo kako bi u par navrata osetile kako ih neko dodiruje po zadnjici, pa kako se neko nekada nabija na njih. Neke su cak primetile i da kad izadju iz autobusa,da taj covek krene da ih prati. Kazu da nije bio toliko neugledan. Celav, negde izmedju 35 i 40 godina, nije bio preterano visok i uvek kezulano obucen. Vracala sam se sa posla. Uvek sam bio sa dobrim ribama i imao uspeha. Jedan prijatno topao prolećni dan se odužio u poslu. Jovan ,stariji lik sa kojim sam povremeno sarađivao,me zamolio da mu pomognem da unesemo neke aparate u njegove kancelarije. Pošto sam taj dan bio ne obavezno nešto završavao po gradu, u šorcu i majci otišao sam do njega i pomogao mu.
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Bila jednom jedna Nataša. Zivim u jednom malom mestu zajedno sa svojim roditeljima. Samo čekam da se pojavi i ulepša mi ovo prohladno decembarsko jutro. Ja sam bio opčinjen njom i u toku priče sam samo klimao glavom. I dalje vas molim za komentare, o njima zavisi hocete li procitati jos koju moju pricu. Potpuno sam zaboravila da se nalazimo u dvorani i vise nisam ni trenutak pridavala vaznost situaciji na terenu. Telo joj je za njene godine bilo u sasvim dobrom stanju a godina je brojila trideset i pet ; Nataša je imala cvrstu cetvorku, duge noge i obrijanu picu. Nikad nikog nije direktno napao, ali nekoliko zena je pricalo kako bi u par navrata osetile kako ih neko dodiruje po zadnjici, pa kako se neko nekada nabija na njih. Znam ja kako to kod nas ide, ali ipak priđem na njegovu stranu. Bila sam u cudu da bas nikog tu nije bilo. U krevetu je bila prava vatra.
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It suffered a schism with the neo-Hussite in 1920, lost the bulk of its adherents during the Communist era and continues to lose in the modern, ongoing. Luckily you can have FREE 7 day access!
German embassy in the Czech Republic. The first brewery is known to have existed in 993 and the Czech Republic has the highest in the world. It is linked with names of , , , , , , , , , , , , Jaroslav Papoušek, etc.
>?C;O@=K5 :0B53>@88 - In 1770 and 1771 killed about one tenth of the Czech population, or 250,000 inhabitants, and radicalised the countryside leading to peasant uprisings. The protectorate was proclaimed part of the Third Reich, and the president and prime minister were subordinated to the Nazi Germany's.
The Czech Republic : Česká republika, Czech pronunciation: , also known by its short-form name Czechia ; : Česko, pronounced , is a in bordered by to the west, to the south, to the east and to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres 30,450 sq mi with a mostly temperate and. It is a , with 10. Other major cities are , and. The Czech Republic is a member of the EU , , the , the , the , and the. It is a with an , based in services, manufacturing and innovation. The ranks the country 14th in. It ranks as the and is one of the most countries in the world, while achieving strong performance in. The Czech Republic includes the historical territories of , , and. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the under the Empire. After the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from to under the. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the , becoming the in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Besides Bohemia itself, the ruled the , he had a the , and was the imperial seat in periods between the 14th and 17th century. In the of the 15th century driven by the , the kingdom faced economic embargoes and defeated five consecutive proclaimed by the leaders of the. Following the in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the alongside the and the. The Protestant 1618—20 against the Catholic led to the. After the , the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, eradicated Protestantism and reimposed Catholicism, and also adopted a policy of gradual. This contributed to the. A long history of resentment of the Catholic Church followed and still continues. With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Bohemian Kingdom became part of the and the experienced a revival as a consequence of widespread. In the 19th century, the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and were subsequently the core of the Republic of , which was formed in 1918 following the collapse of the after World War I. However, the Czech part of was in World War II, while the Slovak region became the ; Czechoslovakia was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its after they were following the war. The won the and after the , Czechoslovakia became a under Soviet influence. In 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the , which ended in a. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 , when the communist regime collapsed and market economy was reintroduced. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia , with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and. The Czech Republic joined in 1999 and the EU in 2004. The current name comes from the ethnonym associated with the area, which ultimately comes from the Czech word Čech. The name comes from the Slavic tribe Czechs, : Češi, Čechové and, according to legend, their leader , who brought them to Bohemia, to settle on. The country has been traditionally divided into three lands, namely Čechy in the west, Morava in the east, and Slezsko; the smaller, south-eastern part of , most of which is located within modern Poland in the northeast. When the country regained its independence after the dissolution of the in 1918, the new name of Czechoslovakia was coined to reflect the union of the Czech and Slovak nations within the one country. After Czechoslovakia dissolved in 1992, the Czech part lacked a common English short name. The Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs recommended the English name Czechia in 1993, and the Czech government as the official short name in 2016. Areas that remain Celtic-speaking today Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human settlements in the area, dating back to the era. The figurine , together with a few others from nearby locations, found here is the oldest known article in the world. In the , from the 3rd century BC migrations, the and later in the 1st century, Germanic tribes of and settled there. Their king is the first documented ruler of Bohemia. During the around the 5th century, many Germanic tribes moved westwards and southwards out of Central Europe. In the sixth century they moved westwards into Bohemia, Moravia and some of present-day Austria and Germany. During the 7th century, the Frankish merchant , supporting the Slavs fighting against nearby settled , became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe, the. The principality , controlled by , arose in the 8th century and reached its zenith in the 9th during the reign of when it held off the influence of the Franks. Great Moravia was Christianized, with a crucial role being played by the mission of. They created the artificial language , the first literary and liturgic language of the , and the. Bohemia The and the in 11th century The emerged in the late 9th century, when it was unified by the. In 10th century conquered , and expanded farther to the east. The Duchy of Bohemia, raised to the in 1198, was from 1002 until 1806 an of the alongside the , the , the and numerous other territories such as the and various. The kingdom was significant regional power during the. The bull declared that the King of Bohemia would be exempt from all future obligations to the Holy Roman Empire except for participation in imperial councils. German immigrants settled in the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century. Germans populated towns and mining districts and, in some cases, formed German colonies in the interior of Bohemia. In 1235, the launched an. After the in Poland, the Mongols carried their raids into Moravia, but were defensively defeated at the fortified town of. The Mongols subsequently invaded and defeated Hungary. He acquired Austria, , and , thus spreading the Bohemian territory to the. He met his death at the in 1278 in a war with his rival, King. Ottokar's son acquired the Polish crown in 1300 for himself and the Hungarian crown for his son. He built a great empire stretching from the to the. In 1306, the last king of Přemyslid line was murdered in mysterious circumstances in Olomouc while he was resting. After a series of dynastic wars, the gained the Bohemian throne. The 14th century, in particular, the reign of the 1316—1378 , who in 1346 became and in 1354 both and , is considered the Golden Age of Czech history. Of particular significance was the founding of in 1348, ,. Much of and the in were completed during his reign. He unified until 1415 , until 1635 , and until 1742 under the Bohemian crown. The , which had raged in Europe from 1347 to 1352, decimated the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1380, killing about 10% of the population. The within the 1600. The Czech lands were part of the Empire in 1002—1806, and Prague was the imperial seat in 1346—1437 and 1583—1611. Although Hus was named a heretic and burnt in in 1415, his followers led by warlords and seceded from the Catholic Church and in the 1419—1434 defeated five crusades organized against them by the Holy Roman Emperor. During the next two centuries, 90% of the population in Bohemian and Moravian lands were considered Hussites. Hussite was even a king. Hus' thoughts were a major influence on the later. Battle between and Catholic during the ; Jena Codex, 15th century After 1526 Bohemia came increasingly under control as the Habsburgs became first the elected and then in 1627 the hereditary rulers of Bohemia. The of the 16th century, the founders of the central European , were buried in Prague. Between 1583—1611 Prague was the official seat of the Holy Roman Emperor and his court. The and subsequent revolt against the Habsburgs in 1618 marked the start of the , which quickly spread throughout Central Europe. In 1620, the rebellion in Bohemia was crushed at the , and the ties between Bohemia and the Habsburgs' hereditary lands in Austria were strengthened. The leaders of the were. The nobility and the middle class Protestants had to either convert to Catholicism or leave the country. The population of the declined by a third through the expulsion of Czech Protestants as well as due to the war, disease and famine. The Habsburgs prohibited all Christian confessions other than. The flowering of shows the ambiguity of this historical period. In 1679—1680 the Czech lands faced a devastating plague and an uprising of serfs. The 1618 marked the beginning of the against the and therefore the first phase of the. The reigns of and her son and co-regent from 1765, were characterized by. In 1740, most of Silesia except the southernmost area was seized by King in the. In 1757 the Prussians invaded Bohemia and after the occupied the city. More than one quarter of Prague was destroyed and also suffered heavy damage. Frederick was defeated soon after at the and had to leave Prague and retreat from Bohemia. In 1770 and 1771 killed about one tenth of the Czech population, or 250,000 inhabitants, and radicalised the countryside leading to peasant uprisings. Several large battles of the — , — took place on the current territory of the Czech Republic. The end of the in 1806 led to degradation of the political status of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Bohemia lost its position of an of the Holy Roman Empire as well as its own political representation in the. Bohemian lands became part of the and later of. During the 18th and 19th century the began its rise, with the purpose to revive Czech language, culture and national identity. The in Prague, striving for liberal reforms and autonomy of the Bohemian Crown within the Austrian Empire, was suppressed. Ceremonial laying of the foundation stone of the during the , 1868 In 1866 Austria was defeated by Prussia in the see also and. The Austrian Empire needed to redefine itself to maintain unity in the face of nationalism. At first it seemed that some concessions would be made also to Bohemia, but in the end the Emperor effected a compromise with Hungary only. The and the never realized coronation of Franz Joseph as King of Bohemia led to a huge disappointment of Czech politicians. Prague was awarded the in 1905. In the same year, the Czech Social Democratic and progressive politicians including started the fight for universal suffrage. The first elections under were held in 1907. The last King of Bohemia was who ruled in 1916—1918. Czechoslovakia Rally in Prague on Wenceslas Square for the from the , 28 October 1918 An estimated 1. Although the majority of Czech soldiers fought for the , more than 90,000 Czech volunteers formed the in France, Italy and Russia, where they fought against the and later against troops. In 1918, during the collapse of the Habsburg Empire at the end of World War I, the independent republic of , which joined the winning Allied powers, was created, with in the lead. This new country incorporated the Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia and parts of the Slovakia and the with significant , , and speaking minorities. Czechoslovakia concluded a treaty of alliance with and the so-called and particularly with. The comprised only 27% of the population of the former Austria-Hungary, but nearly 80% of the industry, which enabled it to successfully compete with Western industrial states. In 1929 compared to 1913, the gross domestic product increased by 52% and industrial production by 41%. In 1938 Czechoslovakia held a 10th place in the world industrial production. Although the was a , it provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities and remained the only democracy in this part of Europe in the interwar period. The effects of the including high unemployment and massive propaganda from Nazi Germany, however, resulted in discontent and strong support among ethnic Germans for a break from Czechoslovakia. The comprised only 27% of the population of the former Austria-Hungary, but nearly 80% of the industry. Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference, and Czechs and Slovaks call the Munich Agreement the because France which had an alliance with Czechoslovakia and Britain gave up Czechoslovakia instead of facing Hitler, which later proved inevitable. Despite the mobilization of 1. After Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia, allowing the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary and Poland, Slovakia chose to maintain its national and territorial integrity, seceding from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939, and allying itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition. Left: , first president of Czechoslovakia Right: , president before and after World War II. The remaining Czech territory was , which transformed it into the so-called. The protectorate was proclaimed part of the Third Reich, and the president and prime minister were subordinated to the Nazi Germany's. Subcarpathian Rus declared independence as the Republic of on 15 March 1939 but was invaded by Hungary the same day and formally annexed the next day. Approximately 345,000 Czechoslovak citizens, including 277,000 Jews, were killed or executed while hundreds of thousands of others were sent to prisons and or used as forced labour. Up to two-thirds of the citizens were in groups targeted by the Nazis for deportation or death. The Nazi called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Czechs for the purpose of providing more for the German people. There was , both at home and abroad, most notably with the by Czechoslovakian soldiers and in a Prague suburb on 27 May 1942. On 9 June 1942 Hitler ordered bloody reprisals against the Czechs as a response to the Czech anti-Nazi resistance. The German occupation ended on 9 May 1945, with the arrival of the Soviet and American armies and the. An estimated 140,000 Soviet soldiers died in liberating Czechoslovakia from German rule. Following the and formation of the within , exiled Czechs fought alongside , such as. In 1945—1946, almost the entire German-speaking minority in Czechoslovakia, about 3 million people, to Germany and Austria see also. During this time, thousands of Germans were held in prisons and detention camps or used as forced labour. In the summer of 1945, there were several massacres, such as the massacre. Research by a joint German and Czech commission of historians in 1995 found that the death toll of the expulsions was at least 15,000 persons and that it could range up to a maximum of 30,000 dead. The only Germans not expelled were some 250,000 who had been active in the resistance against the Nazi Germans or were considered economically important, though many of these emigrated later. Following a Soviet-organised referendum, the Subcarpathian Rus never returned under Czechoslovak rule but became part of the , as the in 1946. However, the rapidly increased in popularity, with a general disillusionment with the West, because of the pre-war , and a favourable popular attitude towards the Soviet Union, because of the Soviets' role in liberating Czechoslovakia from German rule. In the , the Communists gained 38% of the votes and became the largest party in the Czechoslovak parliament. They formed a coalition government with other parties of the and moved quickly to consolidate power. A significant change came in 1948 with. The Communist secured control of key locations in Prague, and a single party government was formed. The political liberalization of the communist regime was stopped by the 1968. For the , Czechoslovakia was a Communist state within the. This period is characterized by lagging behind the West in almost every aspect of social and economic development. The country's GDP per capita fell from the level of neighboring Austria below that of Greece or Portugal in the 1980s. The Communist government completely the and established a. The economy grew rapidly during the 1950s but slowed down in the 1960s and 1970s and stagnated in the 1980s. This was forcibly ended by by all member countries with the exception of and on 21 August 1968. Student became a symbol of resistance to the occupation, when he committed as a political protest. Until 1989, the political establishment relied on censorship of the opposition. Dissidents published in 1977, and the first of a new wave of protests were seen in 1988. Between 1948 and 1989 about 250,000 Czechs and Slovaks were sent to prison for political reasons, and over 400,000 emigrated. However, Slovak national aspirations strengthened see and on 1 January 1993, the into the independent Czech Republic and. Both countries went through economic reforms and , with the intention of creating a. From 1991, the Czech Republic, originally as part of Czechoslovakia and since 1993 in its own right, has been a member of the and from 1995, the. The Czech Republic joined on 12 March 1999 and the on 1 May 2004. On 21 December 2007 the Czech Republic joined the. Until 2017, either the under , , , and , or under , and led the government of the Czech Republic. Topographic map The Czech Republic lies mostly between latitudes and a small area lies north of 51° , and longitudes and. The Czech landscape is exceedingly varied. The highest point in the country, at 1,603 m 5,259 ft , is located here. Moravia, the eastern part of the country, is also quite hilly. It is drained mainly by the , but it also contains the source of the River : Odra. Water from the landlocked Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the , and. The Czech Republic also leases the , a 30,000-square-metre 7. The territory reverts to Germany in 2028. According to the , the territory of the Czech Republic can be subdivided into four : the , Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Carpathian montane conifer forests. There are four in the Czech Republic. The oldest is , and the others are Biosphere Reserve , ,. The three historical lands of the Czech Republic formerly the core countries of the Bohemian Crown correspond almost perfectly with the river basins of the : Labe and the basin for Bohemia, the Morava one for Moravia, and the Oder river basin for Czech Silesia in terms of the Czech territory. The Czech Republic has a temperate , with warm summers and cold, cloudy and snowy winters. The temperature difference between summer and winter is relatively high, due to the landlocked geographical position. Within the Czech Republic, temperatures vary greatly, depending on the elevation. In general, at higher altitudes, the temperatures decrease and increases. The wettest area in the Czech Republic is found around in and the driest region is the to the northwest of. Another important factor is the distribution of the mountains; therefore, the climate is quite varied. The country's capital, , has a similar average temperature, although this is influenced by urban factors. The coldest month is usually January, followed by February and December. During these months, there is usually snow in the mountains and sometimes in the major cities and lowlands. During March, April and May, the temperature usually increases rapidly, especially during April, when the temperature and weather tends to vary widely during the day. Spring is also characterized by high water levels in the rivers, due to melting snow with occasional flooding. The warmest month of the year is July, followed by August and June. On average, summer temperatures are about 20 °C 36 °F — 30 °C 54 °F higher than during winter. Summer is also characterized by rain and storms. Autumn generally begins in September, which is still relatively warm and dry. During October, temperatures usually fall below 15 °C 59 °F or 10 °C 50 °F and trees begin to shed their leaves. By the end of November, temperatures usually range around the freezing point. Most rain falls during the summer. Sporadic rainfall is relatively constant throughout the year in Prague, the average number of days per month experiencing at least 0. Environment The Czech Republic is a pluralist multi-party , with the as and as. The Parlament České republiky is bicameral, with the : Poslanecká sněmovna 200 members and the : Senát 81 members. The president is a formal head of state with limited and specific powers, most importantly to return bills to the parliament, appoint members to the board of the , nominate judges for the Senate's approval and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies under certain special and unusual circumstances. The president and vice president of the are appointed by the President of the Republic. He also appoints the prime minister, as well the other members of the cabinet on a proposal by the prime minister. From 1993 until 2012, the was selected by a joint session of the parliament for a five-year term, with no more than two consecutive terms 2x , 2x. Since 2013 the presidential election is direct. The 's exercise of executive power derives from the. The members of the government are the , Deputy ministers and other ministers. The Government is responsible to the. The is the head of government and wields considerable powers, such as the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy and choose government ministers. The current is , serving since 6 December 2017 as Prime Minister. The are elected for a four-year term by , with a 5%. There are 14 voting districts, identical to the country's administrative regions. The Chamber of Deputies, the successor to the , has the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament of the former Czechoslovakia. The members of the Senate are elected in single-seat by two-round for a six-year term, with one-third elected every even year in the autumn. The first election was in 1996, for differing terms. This arrangement is modeled on the , but each constituency is roughly the same size and the voting system used is a two-round runoff. The Senate is unpopular among the public and suffers from low election turnout. The basis of the legal system is the adopted in 1993. The is effective from 2010. A new became effective in 2014. The court system includes district, county and supreme courts and is divided into civil, criminal, and administrative branches. The Czech judiciary has a of supreme courts. The consists of 15 constitutional judges and oversees violations of the by either the legislature or by the. The is formed of 67 judges and is the court of highest appeal for almost all heard in the Czech Republic. The decides on issues of procedural and administrative propriety. It also has jurisdiction over many political matters, such as the formation and closure of political parties, jurisdictional boundaries between government entities, and the eligibility of persons to stand for public office. The Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court are both based in , as is the Supreme Public Prosecutor's Office. Foreign relations Visa-free entry countries for Czech citizens in green, EU in blue see The Czech Republic ranks as the. It is a member of the United Nations, the , , , and is an observer to the. The embassies of most countries with diplomatic relations with the Czech Republic are located in , while are located across the country. According to the 2018 , Czech citizens have visa-free access to 173 countries, which ranks them 7th along with and. The US applies to Czech nationals. The and have primary roles in setting foreign policy, although the has considerable influence and also represents the country abroad. Membership in the European Union and NATO is central to the Czech Republic's foreign policy. The ÚZSI serves as the agency responsible for and foreign policy briefings, as well as protection of Czech Republic's embassies abroad. The Czech Republic has strong ties with , and as a member of the , as well as with Germany, , the United States and the and its. Czech officials have supported dissenters in , , and. Military Main article: The consist of the , the and of specialized support units. The armed forces are managed by the. The is of the armed forces. In 2004 the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The country has been a member of since 12 March 1999. Defense spending is approximately 1. The armed forces are charged with protecting the Czech Republic and its allies, promoting global security interests, and contributing to NATO. Currently, as a member of NATO, the Czech military are participating in and renamed to operations and have soldiers in , , , , and. The Czech Air Force also served in the and. Main equipment includes: multi-role fighters , combat aircraft , modernized attack helicopters , armored vehicles , , , and Czech modernized tanks. Administrative divisions See also: and Since 2000, the Czech Republic has been divided into : and the capital city of. Every region has its own elected regional assembly krajské zastupitelstvo and hejtman a regional governor. In Prague, the assembly and presidential powers are executed by the city council and the mayor. The Czech Republic is participating in the as a member of the , and is therefore a part of the , but uses its own currency, the , instead of the. It has a per capita GDP rate that is 89% of the EU average and is a member of the. As of January 2018, the rate in the Czech Republic was the lowest in the EU at 2. Czech Republic ranks 24th in both the ranked behind and the ranked behind , 31st in the 30th in the and 25th in the ranked behind. The Czech Republic has a highly diverse economy that in the 2016. The industry sector accounts for 37. The largest trading partner for both export and import is and the EU in general. The country has been a member of the since 1 May 2004, having abolished border controls, completely opening its borders with all of its neighbours Germany, , and on 21 December 2007. The Czech Republic became a member of the on 1 January 1995. Industry In 2015 the by revenue in the Czech Republic were: one of the largest car automobile manufacturers in Central Europe , utility company , conglomerate , energy trading company and electronics manufacturer. Other Czech transportation companies include: tramways, trolleybuses, metro , heavy trucks, the third oldest car maker in the world , medium trucks , and buses , military aircraft , civil aircraft , tractors and motorcycles. Škoda Transportation is the fourth largest producer in the world; nearly one third of all trams in the world come from Czech factories. The Czech Republic is also the world's largest manufacturer, with producing about 6 million pieces annually in. Energy Production of Czech electricity exceeds consumption by about 10 per year, which are exported. The largest Czech power resource is , another is in. The Czech Republic is reducing its dependence on highly polluting low-grade as a source of energy. Natural gas is procured from Russian , roughly three-fourths of domestic consumption and from Norwegian companies, which make up most of the remaining one-fourth. Russian gas is imported via Ukraine , Norwegian gas is transported through Germany. South Moravia has small. The Czech railway network is largely electrified and is among the. In 2010, it handled 11. With 9,505 km 5,906. Of that number, 2,926 km 1,818. In 2006 seven Italian entered service. Russia, via pipelines through Ukraine and to a lesser extent, Norway, via pipelines through Germany, supply the Czech Republic with liquid and natural gas. There are 1,247 km of motorways. By the beginning of 2008, there were over 800 mostly local , with about 350,000 subscribers in 2007. Plans based on either , , or are being offered by all three mobile phone operators , O2, and internet provider U:fon. Government-owned slowed down broadband penetration. At the beginning of 2004, began and alternative operators started to offer and also. This and later privatisation of Český Telecom helped drive down prices. On 1 July 2006, Český Telecom was acquired by globalized company Spain-owned Telefónica group and adopted the new name. Two major companies, and , were founded in the Czech Republic. In 2016, Avast led by bought rival AVG for 1. Avast is the leading provider of antivirus software, with a 20. Science and philosophy The Czech lands have a long and rich scientific tradition. The research based on cooperation between , and specialised research centers brings new inventions and impulses in this area. Important inventions include the modern , the separation of modern , and the production of. Humanities 1369 — 1415 is a key figure of the and inspired the pre-. Original theological and philosophical stream — — originated in the Middle Ages. It was represented by , or. At the end of the Middle Ages, substantially contributed to the development of modern pedagogy. Jewish philosophy in the Czech lands was represented mainly by known for the legend of the of Prague. He also started the struggle for rescuing the Czech language. This culminated in the in the first half of the 19th century. Linguistics , , , etnography , and history played a big role in revival. Palacký was the eminent personality. He wrote the first synthetic history of the Czech nation. He was also the first Czech modern politician and geopolitician see also. In the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century there was a huge development of social sciences. On the contrary, economist led a campaign against Marxism. Musicologists and influenced debates on the development of classical music in Vienna. The new Czechoslovak republic 1918—1938 wanted to develop sciences. Significant linguistic school was established in Prague — , , , moreover linguist deciphered the ancient Hittite language and linguist deepened knowledge about Celtic languages. Philosopher was a member of the Vienna Circle. In the second half of the 20th century can be mentioned philosopher who is considered one of the leading theoreticians on the issue of nationalism. Also Czech historian analyzed modern nationalism. Marxist was a major philosopher in the background of the Prague Spring 1968. Czech Egyptology has scored some successes, its main representative is. Experimental archaeologist made several attempts, they had to answer the question how ancient civilizations transported heavy weights. A number of other scientists are also connected in some way with the Czech lands. The following taught at the University of Prague: astronomers and , physicists , , and , and geologist. Tourism The is a since 1992. The Czech economy gets a substantial income from tourism. In 2001, the total earnings from tourism reached 118 billion , making up 5. The industry employs more than 110,000 people — over 1% of the population. The country's reputation has suffered with guidebooks and tourists reporting overcharging by taxi drivers and pickpocketing problems mainly in Prague, though the situation has improved recently. Since 2005, Prague's mayor, , has worked to improve this reputation by cracking down on petty crime and, aside from these problems, Prague is a safe city. Also, the Czech Republic as a whole generally has a low crime rate. For tourists, the Czech Republic is considered a safe destination to visit. The low crime rate makes most cities and towns very safe to walk around. One of the most visited tourist attractions in the Czech Republic is the in Ostrava, a post-industrial city on the northeast of the country. The territory was formerly the site of steel production, but now it hosts a technical museum with many interactive expositions for tourists. The Czech Republic boasts. All of them are in the cultural category. As of 2018, further 18 sites are on the tentative list. Medieval castles such as are frequent tourist attractions. There are several centres of tourist activity. The , such as , and and , are particularly popular relaxing holiday destinations. There are 12 and 15 churches elevated to the rank of by the Pope, calm monasteries, many modern and ancient churches — for example is one of those inscribed on the World Heritage List. Away from the towns, areas such as , and the Mountains attract visitors seeking outdoor pursuits. The country is also known for its various. Aquapalace Praha in near Prague, is the biggest in central Europe. The Czech Republic has a number of , including: the biggest festival, it is usually 17 days long and held every year in May in Prague , every year in August in , The Olomoucký pivní festival in or festival Slavnosti piva v Českých Budějovicích in. Folk music band from southern Bohemia wearing local Year Pop. ±% 1857 7,016,531 — 1869 7,617,230 +8. As the 'nationality' was an optional item, a substantial number of people left this field blank 26. According to some estimates, there are about 250,000 in the Czech Republic. The resides mainly in the region. There were 496,413 4. Most of the foreign population lives in Prague 37. The population of Bohemia and Moravia, 118,000 according to the 1930 census, was virtually annihilated by the Nazi Germans during. There were approximately 4,000 Jews in the Czech Republic in 2005. The former Czech prime minister, , is of Jewish ethnicity and faith. The TFR in 2015 was estimated at 1. The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 77. Immigration increased the population by almost 1% in 2007. About 77,000 people immigrate to the Czech Republic annually. In 2009, there were about 70,000 Vietnamese in the Czech Republic. Most decide to stay in the country permanently. At the turn of the 20th century, was the city with the third largest Czech population, after and. According to the 2010 US census, there are 1,533,826. Urbanisation City Region Population is the major religion at 10% of the population; in Olomouc pictured. The Czech Republic has one of the populations in the world with 75% to 79% of people not declaring any religion or faith in polls and the percentage of convinced being third highest only behind and. Christianization in the 9th and 10th centuries introduced. After the , most Czechs became of , and other regional. During the , Utraquists sided with the Catholic Church. Following the joint Utraquist—Catholic victory, Utraquism was accepted as a distinct form of Christianity to be practiced in by the while all remaining Hussite groups were prohibited. After the , some Bohemians went with the , especially. In the wake of the Reformation, Utraquist Hussites took a renewed increasingly stance, while some of the defeated Hussite factions notably Taborites were revived. After the regained control of Bohemia, the whole population was forcibly converted to Catholicism—even the Utraquist Hussites. Going forward, Czechs have become more wary and pessimistic of religion as such. A long history of resistance to the Catholic Church followed. It suffered a schism with the neo-Hussite in 1920, lost the bulk of its adherents during the Communist era and continues to lose in the modern, ongoing. Protestantism never recovered after the was introduced by the in 1620. According to the 2011 census, 34% of the population stated they had no religion, 10. From 1991 to 2001 and further to 2011 the adherence to Catholicism decreased from 39% to 27% and then to 10%; Protestantism similarly declined from 3. Education , a revolutionary children's textbook with illustrations published in 1658 by educator. Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory for 9 years and citizens have access to a , while the average number of years of education is 13. Additionally, the Czech Republic has a relatively equal educational system in comparison with other countries in Europe. Founded in 1348, was the first university in. Other major universities in the country are , , , and. The , coordinated by the , currently ranks the Czech education system as the 15th most successful in the world, higher than the OECD average. The UN ranks the Czech Republic 10th as of 2013 positioned behind and ahead of. Health pitcher, circa 1880 is the treasure of prehistoric art. For example, he decorated the castle Karlstejn. In the Baroque era, the famous painters were , , , or , sculptors and. In the first half of the 19th century, joined the romantic movement. At the end of the century came a wave of. Alfons Mucha became the main representative. He is today the most famous Czech painter. As of 2012 , can be seen in the Veletržní Palace of the , which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic. The 20th century brought avant-garde revolution. In the Czech lands mainly expressionist and cubist: , , ,. Surrealism emerged particularly in the work of , and. In the world, however, he pushed mainly , a pioneer of abstract painting. As illustrators and cartoonists in the first half of the 20th century gained fame , or. Art photography has become a new field , , later or. The Czech Republic is known worldwide for its individually made, mouth blown and decorated. Architecture The earliest preserved stone buildings in Bohemia and Moravia date back to the time of the in the 9th and 10th century. Since the Middle Ages, the Czech lands have been using the same architectural styles as most of and Central Europe. The oldest still standing churches were built in the ,. During the 13th century it was replaced by the , , , , with ,. In the 14th century Emperor Charles IV invited to his court in Prague talented architects from France and Germany, and , ,. During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by the king and aristocracy, as well as many monasteries , , ,. During the , many of them were damaged or destroyed. The penetrated the Bohemian Crown in the late 15th century when the older Gothic style started to be slowly mixed with Renaissance elements architects , and their. An outstanding example of the pure Renaissance architecture in Bohemia is the , which was situated in a newly established garden of. Evidence of the general reception of the Renaissance in Bohemia, involving a massive influx of Italian architects, can be found in spacious châteaux with elegant arcade courtyards and geometrically arranged gardens ,. Emphasis was placed on comfort, and buildings that were built for entertainment purposes also appeared. In the 17th century, the Baroque style spread throughout the Crown of Bohemia. Very outstanding are the architectural projects of the Czech nobleman and imperial generalissimo from the 1620s. His architects Andrea Spezza and reflected the most recent Italian production and were very innovative at the same time. In the first third of the 18th century the Bohemian lands were one of the leading artistic centers of the Baroque style. In Bohemia there was completed the development of the Radical Baroque style created in Italy by and in a very original way. Leading architects of the Bohemian Baroque were , , , and his son. In the 18th century Bohemia produced an architectural peculiarity — the Baroque Gothic style, a synthesis of the Gothic and Baroque styles. This was not a simple return to Gothic details, but rather an original Baroque transformation. The main representative and originator of this style was , who used this style in renovating medieval monastic buildings or in. During the 19th century, the were very popular in the Bohemian monarchy. Many churches were restored to their presumed medieval appearance and there were constructed many new buildings in the , and styles , ,. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries the new art style appeared in the Czech lands —. The best-known representatives of Czech Art Nouveau architecture were , who designed the in Prague, , the architect of the , , and. Bohemia contributed an unusual style to the world's architectural heritage when Czech architects attempted to transpose the of painting and sculpture into architecture. During the first years of the independent Czechoslovakia after 1918 , a specifically Czech architectural style, called Rondo-Cubism, came into existence. Together with the pre-war it is unparalleled elsewhere in the world. The first Czechoslovak president invited the prominent architect to Prague, where he modernized the and built some other buildings. Between World Wars I and II, , with its sober, progressive forms, took over as the main architectural style in the newly established Czechoslovak Republic. In the city of Brno, one of the most impressive functionalist works has been preserved — , designed by the architect. The most significant Czech architects of this era were , and. After World War II and the Communist coup in 1948, art in Czechoslovakia became strongly Soviet influenced. The Czechoslovak avant-garde artistic movement known as the named after the Brussels World's Fair became popular in the time of political liberalization of Czechoslovakia in the 1960s. Even today, the Czech Republic is not shying away from the most modern trends of international architecture. This fact is attested to by a number of projects by world-renowned architects and his , , , and. There are also contemporary Czech architects whose works can be found all over the world , ,. Literature won the In a strict sense, is the literature written in the. A more liberal definition incorporates all literary works written in the Czech lands regardless of language. The literature from the area of today's Czech Republic was mostly written in Czech, but also in and German or even. Thus , who—while bilingual in Czech and German —wrote his works , in German, during the era of Austrian rule, can represent the , German or depending on the point of view. In the second half of the 13th century, the royal court in Prague became one of the centers of the German and courtly literature , , Ulrich von Etzenbach,. The most famous Czech medieval German-language work is the Ploughman of Bohemia , written around 1401 by. The heyday of Czech German-language literature can be seen in the first half of the 20th century, which is represented by the well-known names of , , , , , , and others. The oldest Czech translation of the originated in the late 13th century and the first complete Czech translation of the Bible was finished around 1360. The first complete printed Czech Bible was published in 1488. The first complete Czech Bible translation from the original languages was published between 1579 and 1593 and is known as the. The from the 12th century is the largest extant medieval manuscript in the world. Czech-language literature can be divided into several periods: the Middle Ages ; the Hussite period , , ; the , , , , ; the Baroque period , , , ; the Enlightenment and Czech reawakening in the first half of the 19th century , , , , , , , modern literature in second half of the 19th century , , , , , ; the avant-garde of the interwar period , , , , , ; the years under Communism and the Prague Spring , , , , , , ; and the literature of the post-Communist Czech Republic , , , ,. Noted journalists include , , and. The famous antiwar comedy novel by is the most translated Czech book in history. It was adapted by in two color films in 1956 and 1957. Widely translated Czech books are also Milan Kundera's and Karel Čapek's. The international literary award the is awarded in the Czech Republic. The Czech Republic has the densest network of libraries in Europe. At its center stands the , based in the baroque complex. Czech literature and culture played a major role on at least two occasions when Czechs lived under oppression and political activity was suppressed. On both of these occasions, in the early 19th century and then again in the 1960s, the Czechs used their cultural and literary effort to strive for political freedom, establishing a confident, politically aware nation. Its roots can be found in the 12th century and it still belongs to the most popular religious songs to this day. In 1918, in the beginning of the state, the song was discussed as one of the possible choices for the national anthem. Vojtěch , bishop of , living between 956 and 997. The wealth of musical culture in the Czech Republic lies in the long-term high-culture classical music tradition during all historical periods, especially in the , , Romantic, music and in the folk music of Bohemia, Moravia and. Since the early era of artificial music, Czech musicians and composers have often been influenced the folk music of the region and dances e. Among the most notable Czech composers are , , , , , , , , , and in baroque era, and in romanticism, , , , , , , , , , , in modern classical music, and in contemporary classical music. Other examples of famous musicians, interpreters and conductors are , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , or non-classical musicians: brass band , and film music , , and operetta , and pop , and jazz , folk. Czech music can be considered to have been beneficial in both the European and worldwide context, several times co-determined or even determined a newly arriving era in musical art, above all of era, as well as by original attitudes in , and music. The most famous music festival in the country is of classical music, a permanent showcase for outstanding performing artists, symphony orchestras and chamber music ensembles of the world. Theatre Main article: The roots of Czech theatre can be found in the Middle Ages, especially in cultural life of. In the 19th century, the theatre played an important role in the national awakening movement and later, in the 20th century it became a part of the modern European theatre art. Original Czech cultural phenomenon came into being at the end of the 1950s. This project called The Magic Lantern was the brainchild of renowned film and theater director , resulting in productions that combined theater, dance and film in a poetic manner, considered the first project in international context. Film Main article: The tradition of Czech cinematography started in the second half of the 1890s. Peaks of the production in the era of silent movies include the historical drama The Builder of the Temple and the social and erotic very controversial and innovative at that time drama Erotikon directed by. The early Czech era was very productive, above all in mainstream genres, especially the comedies of or. However, dramatic movies were more internationally successful. Among the most successful being the by Gustav Machatý and the romantic The River by. This began a strong tradition of animated films 's etc. Another Czech cultural phenomenon came into being at the end of the 1950s. In the 1960s, so called Czech New Wave also received international acclaim. It is linked with names of , , , , , , , , , , , , Jaroslav Papoušek, etc. The hallmark of the films of this movement were long, often improvised , and humor and the occupation of non-actors. Directors are trying to preserve natural atmosphere without refinement and artificial arrangement of scenes. The unique personality of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s with original manuscript, deep psychological impact and extraordinarily high quality art is the director. He is a self-labeled known for his animations and features, which have greatly influenced many artists worldwide. The is the highest Czech award for film achievement. The in Prague are the largest film studios in country and one of the largest in Europe with many many popular film locations in the country. Filmmakers have come to to shoot scenery no longer found in Berlin, Paris and Vienna. The city of was used as a location for the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale. It is also one of few film festivals have been given competitive status by the. Other film festivals held in the country include , , , and. Media Since the Czech Republic is a democratic republic, journalists and media enjoy a great degree of. There are restrictions only against writing in support of , racism or violating. The country was ranked as the 23rd most free press in the World Freedom Index by in 2017. The most watched main is. The most trusted news webpage in the Czech Republic is ct24. Other public services are and the ČTK. Privately owned television services such as TV Nova, and are also very popular, with TV Nova being the most popular channel in the Czech Republic. Newspapers are quite popular in the Czech Republic. The best-selling daily national newspapers are average 1. Video games Main article: The Czech Republic is home to several globally successful video game developers, including 2K Czech , , , and. The Czech video game development scene has a long history, and a number of Czech games were produced for the , and systems in the 1980s. In the early 2000s, a number of Czech games achieved international acclaim, including , , and. Today, the most globally successful Czech games include , , , , , , , , , and. The are held annually to recognize accomplishments in video game development. Cuisine Main article: Czech cuisine is marked by a strong emphasis on meat dishes. Pork is quite common; beef and chicken are also popular. Goose, duck, rabbit and wild game are served. Fish is rare, with the occasional exception of fresh and , which is served at Christmas. The first brewery is known to have existed in 993 and the Czech Republic has the highest in the world. Further south the town of , known as Budweis in German, lent its name to its beer, eventually known as. Apart from these and other major brands, the Czech Republic also has a growing number of small breweries and mini-breweries. Aside from , Czech beer and wine, the Czechs also produce two unique , and. Czech desserts include a wide variety of whipped cream, chocolate, and fruit pastries and tarts, crępes, creme desserts and cheese, poppy-seed-filled and other types of traditional cakes such as , and. Ice hockey is the most popular sport in the Czech Republic and the Czech national team is one of the Sports play a part in the life of many Czechs, who are generally loyal supporters of their favorite teams or individuals. The two leading sports in the Czech Republic are and. The most watched events in the Czech Republic are and. Tennis is also a very popular sport in the Czech Republic. The many other sports with professional leagues and structures include basketball, volleyball, , and. The country has won 14 gold medals in plus 49 as Czechoslovakia and five gold medals plus two as Czechoslovakia in. Famous Olympians are , , , , , , or. Sports legends are also runner or chess-player. Czech hockey school has good reputation. Former superstars and are among the best known Czech hockey players of all time. The was a consistent performer on the international scene, with eight appearances in the FIFA World Cup Finals, finishing in second place in 1934 and 1962. The team also won the European Football Championship in 1976, came in third in 1980 and won the Olympic gold in 1980. After dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the finished in second 1996 and third 2004 place at the European Football Championship. The most famous Czech footballers were , , , , Ballon d'or 1962 , , , , , Ballon d'or 2003 , , , , , , and. The Czech Republic also has great influence in tennis, with such players as , , , , , Wimbledon Women's Singles winners and , 8-time Grand Slam singles champion , and 18-time Grand Slam champion. The winner silver medal and two gold medalist in 1956, 1966. Sport is a source of strong waves of patriotism, usually rising several days or weeks before an event. The events considered the most important by Czech fans are: the , , , , and qualification matches for such events. In general, any international match of the Czech ice hockey or football national team draws attention, especially when played against a traditional rival. One of the most popular Czech sports is hiking, mainly in the Czech mountains. For hikers, thanks to the more than 120-year-old tradition, there is a of , that has been adopted by countries worldwide. There is a network of around 40,000 km of marked short- and long-distance trails crossing the whole country and all the Czech mountains. The most significant sports venues are e. Czech Republic — Official website. Retrieved 14 November 2011. Article 25 of the Czech ensures the right of the national and ethnic minorities to education and communication with the authorities in their own language. The Administrative Rule in its paragraph 16 4 Procedural Language ensures that a citizen of the Czech Republic who belongs to a national or an ethnic minority, which traditionally and on a long-term basis lives within the territory of the Czech Republic, has the right to address an administrative agency and proceed before it in the language of the minority. If the administrative agency has no employee with knowledge of the language, the agency is bound to obtain a translator at the agency's own expense. According to Act No. Účastníci řízení mohou jednat a písemnosti mohou být předkládány i v jazyce slovenském... Veškerá písemná podání se předkládají v češtině nebo slovenštině... Retrieved 7 January 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2017. Retrieved on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2017. Archived from on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 22 November 2016. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 23 March 2017. Retrieved 13 September 2014. The United Nations Terminology Database. Retrieved 2 September 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2007. Retrieved 14 May 2014. Accessed on 3 July 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Praha: Úřad Vlády České Republiky The Office of the Government of the Czech Republic. Retrieved 31 October 2012. National Archives of the Czech Republic Národní Archiv České Republiky. Archived from on 28 November 2012. Retrieved 31 October 2012. Ramet 1998 , p. Retrieved 19 November 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2018. Origin Polish spelling of Czech Čech. Retrieved 10 December 2012. Archived from on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Archived from on 15 August 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Virtual Museum of Protestantism. Retrieved 25 May 2015. Styan, Ústav politických vied SAV. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Francis Ludwig Carsten 1979. Historický obzor in Czech. New York, Oxford: Berghahn Books. Archived from PDF on 25 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. Archived from on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Archived from PDF on 5 June 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2007. Aspects of European History 1789—1980. Retrieved 14 May 2014. , The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Starting World War II, 1937—1939 Chicago, 1980 , pp. Schlaglichter auf das Verhältnis von Tschechen, Slowaken und Deutschen 1815—1989 Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 2001, pp. Od lidově demokratického po socialistické Československo — pokračování. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Tolasz, Climate Atlas of the Czech Republic, Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, Prague, 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2012. Tolasz, Climate Atlas of the Czech Republic, Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, Prague, 2007. Archived from on 2016-02-02. Retrieved 21 November 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 7 November 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Archived from PDF on 23 January 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2015. German embassy in the Czech Republic. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015. Retrieved 25 March 2016. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Retrieved 11 August 2015. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Archived from on 24 May 2008. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Published on 10 March 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2015. Database updated on 12 April 2017. Accessed on 21 April 2017. Accessed on 17 April 2018. Published on 19 October 2016. Access date 3 October 2017. Archived from on 25 February 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2007. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2012. Archived from on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 17 March 2008. Retrieved 18 May 2008. Retrieved 1 November 2010. Archived from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 24 March 2009. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown. Retrieved 3 March 2009. Retrieved 8 January 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2015. Archived from on 28 March 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2006. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Archived from on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2016. Retrieved 29 March 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2012. Retrieved on 12 August 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Retrieved 25 April 2010. European Foundation of Human Rights. Prague: Czech Statistical Office. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Retrieved 10 December 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2008. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Archived from the original on 3 June 2009. Retrieved 3 June 2009. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from on 12 May 2014. Retrieved 13 September 2014. Retrieved 13 July 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2015. Archived from PDF on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2012. Archived from PDF on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 5 January 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2017. Classifying it as either one is disputable. For more details and dispute about this, see. Retrieved 9 March 2010. Retrieved 17 September 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2010. Int J Integr Care. Retrieved 8 April 2017. Czech Presidency of the European Union. Retrieved 20 July 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2015. Architektura barokní in Czech Deset století architektury ed. Praha: Správa Pražského hradu a DaDa. Retrieved 24 August 2010. Wilmington Publishing and Information Ltd. Retrieved 26 October 2012. Archived from on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2015. Retrieved 17 July 2015. Retrieved 14 May 2014. In Pósán, László; Papp, Imre; Bárány, Attila; Orosz, István; Angi, János. Multiplex Media — Debrecen University Press.
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