Chinese Dragons:
These dragons were descendants of nagas, the infamous Indian dragons. However, this relationship is not entirely direct, and the linkage between the two races reflects more upon the nature of the beasts than their physical make-up; the naga's corruptive influence impacted on the Chinese dragon's cultural role, sculpting them into slightly less divine creatures. Hence, their early influence, and the Chinese dragon's subsequent alteration, may have afforded the naga a paternal role (Whittaker, 1997).
According to mythology the Chinese dragon was gifted with the strengths of nine animals: the antlers of a stag, ears of a cow, eyes of a demon, head of a camel, belly of a clam, talons of an eagle, feet of a tiger, the body of a snake and the scales of a fish (Legg, 1998). The number nine was very important to Chinese beliefs as it represents Yang; in the world of beasts, Yang was masculine and was immortalised by the dragon. Of the Eastern dragon's scales, 81 contained goodness and 36 contained evil. A lump on the head of a Chinese dragon, called a ch'ih muh, enabled it to fly. However, if a dragon did not possess this lump, they clutched a small staff called po-shan which enabled them to levitate (Legg, 1998). The dragon was also a symbol of sexual potency; a Zhou dynasty king tells how his wives were impregnated by the saliva of a dragon which had appeared to his ancestors years earlier (Littleton, 2002). Despite their strengths, dragons were not renowned for their intelligence; two independent Chinese myths detail dragons being outwitted by monkeys (Littleton, 2002).
Within the wide dragon spectrum there were various types, which could be recognised:
- Ying-lung were the winged dragons, which took 4 000 years to develop wings.
- K'iu-lung, a name also attributed to blue dragons, were horned; hornless dragons called li depicted scholars and controlled the depths of the sea (Cooper, 1992).
- The chi'i-lung dragons were red, white or green.
- The Azure or Celestial Dragon, T'ien Lung, upholds the heavenly mansions of the gods and with Fu-tsang, the guardian of secret treasure, heralds divine strength as an important semi-deity.
- Lung dragons, most commonly known as Imperial dragons (5 claws), face South with their tail in the North as a representative of life-giving vapours and the sun.
- Three-clawed dragons who were later adopted as Japanese were mang, standing for transient power and strength.
- The Chiao were earth-bound, lairing in the mountains or earth as a symbol for the statesman (Cooper, 1992).
Specific dragons were also depicted on separate objects:
- The p'u lao were carved as reliefs onto gongs.
- Ch'iu and pi hsi often appeared on violins and writing tablets.
- The pa hsia were commonly seen guarding the bases of stone monuments.
- The chao feng frequented the eaves of temples.
- Ch'ih were carved onto bridge beams to prevent the bridge from collapsing.
- Suan ni protected the throne of Buddha.
- The yai tzu were carved on sword hilts.
- The pi han were depicted on prison gates.
Chinese dragons were completely black, white, red, yellow, blue or green in colour. Yellow dragons were considered the highest-ranking, as they represented the golden sun, which was linked to the Chinese Emperor (Storm, 2002). The age of a Chinese dragon could be deduced from their body colour. Yellow dragons were born from yellow gold a thousand years old; blue dragons derived from blue gold eight hundred years old; red, white, and black dragons were from blue gold a thousand years old.
There were ancient Chinese Dragon-Kings, also called Long (or Lung) Wang dragons, recognisable by the valuable pearls carried in the throat. These dragons lived in sumptuous oceanic palaces, dining on pearls and opals (Littleton, 2002). These four Dragon-Kings were brothers, and are most widely known by the names bestowed upon them in Travels in the West (Ao Kuang, Ao Jun, Ao Shun and Ao Ch'in), however to the Taoists they have different titles (Aldington & Ames, 1959). Though they were rarely worshipped, the local Dragon-Kings were revered and as a result, many temples were established in their honour (Aldington & Ames, 1959).
According to Chinese mythology, there was a dragon for every aspect of life, and it was said a dragon inhabited each drop of water, inflicting upon those who wasted the precious resource dire punishments (Storm, 2002). Dragons watched over water-carriers and boatmen (Storm, 2002), and these people were advised not to eat roast swallows, which dragons considered a delicacy. Roasted swallows were offered to dragons before crossing water bodies (or when rain was needed), in order to appease the beasts and ensure a safe voyage. Chinese dragons were rumoured to live among the clouds, exhaling "vital vapours" (Binder, 1972). In order to bring rain to the land, dragons would depend on the August Personage of Jade (or Jade Emperor), from whom they would receive instruction on how much water to deliver from the sky (Bellingham, et al., 2001); they would then fight one another viciously in the air. From this, the rain would come from their spiraling, writhing movements. The annual dragon-boat race, continued today all over the world, was a reminder to the dragons to fight one another so that rain would continue to fall and the spring planting would be successful (Binder, 1972). In northern China, three joss-sticks were sacrificed to the Dragon-King in their temple beside every well in order to bring rain.
Ceremonies to induce rain often included a large and colourful musical procession that was taken through the main city streets. However, smaller villages did not host such a parade, and opted instead for an appropriate sacrifice performed at their most important temple. This was followed by fervent prayer; if, after a few days, the land was still parched, a sculpture of a dragon god was placed by the roadside. The porous clay statue would desiccate in the sun and was believed to cause the dragon intense pain. This supposedly induced it to rush from its underwater home to the throne of the August Personage of Jade, seeking permission to bring down rain upon the land. Should enough rain then fall after the dragon's exposure, an ample sacrifice was offered along with an elaborate theatrical performance lasting three days (Aldington & Ames, 1959).
In time of severe drought, the dragon's image would instead be taken directly to the crops, so the dragon could itself see the damage.
While dragons could issue rain, they could also subdue and to an extent, control water. In times as recent as 1869, the Chinese government reflected public opinion by giving direct thanks to one particular dragon, as an imperial proclamation decreed, "When the dykes of the Yellow River were in imminent danger of collapse, the repeated apparition of the Golden Dragon saved the situation." (Littleton, 2002, p. 446.)
Spit from the dragon's curling tongue formed the magic sphere, which is called the "pearl of potentiality", the moon, and the "egg of fertility" (Binder, 1972). When the blood from a Chinese dragon soaked into the earth, it changed into amber, and when Chinese dragons shed their skin, its phosphorescence caused it to glow eerily in the dark.
The Chinese dragon was strongest when it was forward facing with five claws, and emperors wore this embroidered on all their robes.
Japanese Dragons:
At first glance, the Japanese dragon would appear very similar to their close geographical relatives, the dragons of China. However, their bodies do not have the same structural animal composition, and their forms are predominantly more serpentine (Shuker, 2004). Japanese dragons are generally beneficent, however their alignment leans moreso to a neutral temperament, as opposed to a divine, heavenly character.
The concept of the (Chinese) four Dragon-Kings was mirrored in Japan (Davis, 1989):
- The Celestial Dragon acted as a guardian and overseer of the gates of the gods' extravagant homes;
- The Spiritual Dragon was charged with balancing the correct fall and distribution of rain;
- The Earth Dragon guided the waterways snaking along the earth, particularly large, arterial rivers;
- The Dragon of Hidden Treasure was the patron of metals, gems and other such minerals that were of value to humans (Davis, 1989).
Japanese dragons have only three toes and as such, this marks the end of their travels over the Oriental world for, should they travel beyond Japan, they would lose toes until locomotion was no longer possible. The most familiar type of Japanese dragon is called a tatsu, and while Japanese dragons- like all Oriental serpentine beasts- share a close connection with water, their linkage is focused primarily on the sea; a reflection of Japan's geography, as Japan is less prone to drought than China and India (Shuker, 2004).
Sea serpents of the same area, called the Kiao, are so closely tied to dragons they are often regarded as such. Like the Japanese dragons, the Kiao undergo metamorphosis during their life, sprouting wings to take to the air when they reach an undetermined age (Suckling, 1998). This is not too dissimilar from the hai riyo (also known as the tobi tatsu and schachi hoko), or the "dragon bird", a stage of being that awaits all dragons. These dragon birds are the highest form of physical state for the dragon (Shuker, 2004), and as such represent a myriad of acquirements gained through a dragon's life.
The hai riyo is in its most literal sense as the name suggests; the avian components of this creature consist of the feathered wings, body and tail of a bird, while the face and feet remain those of a dragon and as such the creature essentially remains little beyond an advanced form of its previous self. Of the hai riyo, the annual apparition of O-gon-cho every 50 years, who resided in the middle of the Ukisima lake near Kyoto, was a dark omen and a messenger of sadness for the people in the area. The white dragon living in the center of the lake was stolidly avoided on a daily basis, and when it assumed its place as the golden songbird O-gon-cho, its song was greatly feared for it foretold of disaster (Shuker, 2004). Several sightings of this dragon bird were reported in April 1834, and soon afterwards there was widespread famine in the area (Shuker, 2004).
The dragon is a significant figure in history, mythology and has had a great impact on daily life. Its very prominence not only makes it highly respected but, conversely, attracts enemies and makes it a challenged creature due to its divine fortune and venerated rank.
One such enmity existed between a Dragon King of Lake Biwa and a tyrant centipede, whose 100 feet glowed like lanterns and hideous, demonic features were highlighted by fiery eyes. The dragon's underwater palace was being rudely ravaged by this invading centipede, who was dispatched by Hidesato, Lord of the Rice Bale, given his title as the Dragon King rewarded him with an unending bale of rice for his bravery (Littleton, 2002).
Trickster fox spirits often played mischief on dragons, and would keep unclean possessions with them to avoid revenge from the angry dragons, who abhorred coming into contact with such distasteful objects. These same spirits, however, did not reserve their antagonistic ways purely for dragons, and often created havoc among mankind (Shuker, 2004).
Unlike any other dragon, female Japanese dragons lay beautiful gem-like eggs, coloured in iridescent rainbow hues, which are often mistaken for precious stones (Dragon Fantastic, 2001). This can lead to some strife between dragon and man, however in most circumstances the case of mistaken identity is easily forgiven and excused if the egg is returned unharmed.
Korean Dragons:
Like its divine cousins, the Korean dragon was a heavenly creature associated with royalty and goodness. Essentially, the dragon is a symbol for spiritual strength rather than physical, perhaps reminiscent of its total absence from the human world (Chu-hwan, 1994). In Korea, the dragon first manifested on the murals of tombs from the Koguryo Kingdom, and thus was nothing more than an elaborated emblem. It wasn't until the start of the Han period of China (206 BC), not Korea, that the dragon began to spread outwards and became more notable in Korean life. These early dragons were essentially known as yongdo, the blue dragon, who repelled evil spirits and protected the deceased from harm, and frequently appeared alongside the tiger (the counter-symbol for physical strength), having been initially derived from a belief in the four deities. The cloud dragon uny-yong was the typical bringer of rain and was also depicted in tombs (Chu-hwan, 1994).
The divine nature of the dragon was further upheld in the widespread belief that the very fortunate may visit the underwater Dragon-King palace (Han, 1991).
Of the Oriental dragons, Korean dragons share a closer connection to fire, the elemental opposite of water, than their venerated neighbours. The dragons of Korea were commonly depicted in palaces, usually alongside the mythical haet'ae (a fearsome unicorn-lion), which was a devourer of fire and could distinguish good from evil (Chu-hwan, 1994).
Just as in China, the Korean dragon was sometimes depicted clutching a pearl which represented universal constancy, while the dragon itself was a candidate for change. Should flames be added to this image, emanating from either the dragon or pearl, the symbol of the dragon morphs into a far more powerful form, representing not only the corporeal world but also the supernatural (Chu-hwan, 1994). This two-fold symbol is common among the Eastern dragon, and is typified here by the dragon's fiery link, while amazingly retaining its inherent association with water. This is also exemplified by the dragon's mythical presence since antiquity as one of the four creatures of the cosmological (time and space) quadrants.
The aforementioned Green Dragon of the East (as discussed in the Introduction/ Overview), was a symbol depicted prominently in Korean art (moreso than in China), which, with the element of wood and the easterly direction, stood for its assigned "space and time" quarter (Chu-hwan, 1994). It wasn't until later years the four quarters were subdivided into twelve, and the creatures of the zodiac, including the dragon, came into play, later to appear in tombs such as the Koguryo tombs, and continuing to appear throughout history (Chu-hwan, 1994).
Despite the Korean dragon's ties with fire, the elemental, prophylactic image of the dragon was linked closely with their association with water. They were important in architecture (such as on the water gate near Suwon), and were favoured on the ridge-caps of roofs as a waterspout, carved into the shape of a dragon's head or yong-du (Chu-hwan, 1994). With the tiger, phoenix and tortoise or "black warrior", the dragon was favoured alongside other creatures as a symbolic decoration on walls, eaves and ceilings.
They also featured in folklore stories and subsequently were a well-used motif in paintings, such as the tale of the Dragon-King who was captured as a three-tailed turtle and rescued by a warrior who was, in turn, helped by the same Dragon-King (In-Sob, 1982). The importance of the dragon was recognised through mentions in Korean literature, which had its origins in song as in many other cultures. One such song is Saenaennorae, a song with two stanzas of four lines each (sometimes followed by an extra two lines). Saenaennorae talks about the son of a Dragon-King Ch'oyong, who held power and wealth among the Sillian people as a prominent member of society (Joe, 1982). Returning home inebriated one night, he discovered his wife was having an affair, and so sang:
Having caroused far into the night,
In the moonlit capital,
I return home and in my bed,
Behold, four legs.
Two have been mine;
Whose are the other two?
Two had been mine;
No, no, they are taken.
Being the son of a Dragon-King, Ch'oyong could have dispatched the adulterous man quickly. However this would not have had any lasting conclusions, and so Ch'oyong's song allowed him to transcend thoughts of petty revenge and brought him to a place where evil could not thrive. In this manner he drove the intruder away without violence- a perfect example of the nature of a dragon (Joe, 1982).
Just as in China, the Korean dragon was worn on robes by Choson kings when performing royal duties. Their red robes were decorated with clouds and golden dragons across the chest, shoulders and back (Kim, 1997), which in men are generally considered areas of power and strength. With five claws (not to be mistaken with the five-clawed Chinese dragons), the Korean dragon represented the monarch's undeniable strength and glory. As a symbol for the king himself, the Korean dragon had a record seven toes, a marker of its pure and divine status (Chu-Whan, 1994). At one stage, the dragon was reserved for exclusive use on political publications (Chu-Whan, 1994).
In 1897 the red robes were substituted for yellow by King Kojong, self-appointed emperor of the Taeham Empire (instead of the king of Choson), and the red instead was passed down to be worn by the crown prince. In this same year the phoenix was replaced by the dragon as the emblem for the Queen despite the breaking of tradition (Kim, 1997).
Considerable emphasis was placed on military organisation in Korean society; the Dragon-Tiger Guards (alongside the Soaring Falcon Guards) were charged with protecting the King (Lee, 1984); a mix that combined the spiritual strength of the dragon and physical prowess of the tiger.
Nagas:
The dragons of India, the nagas, made their first appearance during the churning of the Ocean of Milk when the naga Vasuki was used as a rope by the gods and demons (Ions, 1967). The word naga is Indian for snake or serpent, and this reflects their physical appearance, as they are wholly serpentine creatures, distinguished by their five or seven-hooded multiple heads (Ions, 1967). However, they may also resemble a demi-snake, with the upper-half of a person and the lower of a serpent (Nigg, 2002). As such, they are more demon than dragon.
The nagas lair in the nether regions of the world called Patala, which is thought to be deep in the Earth's seas. Here, they are powerful rulers and guardians. They are enemies with the Garuda bird (an animosity that first began when the nagas held Garuda's mother, Vinata, prisoner [Ions, 1967]), who represents the Sun and is a devourer of all evil things (Bellingham, et al., 2001).
Alexander the Great and his army was said to have encountered a dragon in India that was of such size Alexander's entire army was silenced at the sight of its monstrous head, the only visible body part. In the book The Elizabethan Zoo, Edward Topsell is quoted describing the Indian dragon as the greatest of dragons:
It is also reported, that Alexander among many other beasts which hee saw in India, did there finde in a certaine denne a dragon... When it uttered the voyce with full breath, it terrified his whole Armie... for one of his eyes in their appearance seemed as great as a Macedonian buckler. Whereas dragons are bredde in India and Affrica, the greatest of all are in India... (pp. 147-8).
While nagas are generally thought of as demon-like and the personification of primal evil, a few have gained immortality by licking up a few drops of amrita (a nectar of immortality or divine consciousness), which fell to the ground when Garuda rescued Vinata (Ions, 1967). Because of this, some nagas have been able to establish connections with the gods, thus acquiring desirable attributes such as virtue. The aforementioned naga Vasuki (whose serpentine coils were used to churn the Ocean of Milk) became pure by vomiting forth the poison within him. The god Shiva adopted Vasuki as a corset-like garment, and in this fashion Vasuki helps Shiva destroy any demons that threaten his world (Ions, 1967).
The king of nagas, Ananta (or Shesha) forms the raft on which Vishnu lies when he floats on the cosmic waters at the dawn of creation. As an eternal symbol, Ananta supports the heavens by holding his own tail in his mouth (Ions, 1967). Another naga with close ties to the heavenly beings is Makara, who, as the steed of the water god Varuna, represents the mystical forces of water.
Nagas are richly endowed creatures, who wear gems in their multiple hoods that light up the darkness of the nether regions. Their coils are famed to hide a pearl of divine knowledge, and they generously lavish gems and rubies to humans whom they favour (Nigg, 2002). Though nagas are generally thought to lair in Patala, some make their home at the top of Mount Meru, where they have luxurious palaces with gems that grant wishes, sweet-scented flowers, wonderful music, and beautiful companions (Hogarth & Clery, 1979). However, underneath all their elaborate trappings, the life of a naga is far from easy. They have to endure many kinds of suffering: the naga's delicious food turns into toads when brought into the mouth, a naga's beautiful concubines become serpents when embraced, and the scales on a naga's back lie in reverse direction, so that if sand, pebbles or dust lodge between them the naga endures agonising pain (Hogarth & Clery, 1979).
Divine or heavenly nagas bring down rain to fertilise the land, however these were once captured and held captive, which subsequently led to a long period of drought. When angered, nagas unleash their anger upon on the people and animals by flooding the earth (Nigg, 2002). Like the Ancient Chinese Dragon-Kings, there were also Naga-Kings, eight of these in total. These eight Naga-Kings lived in jeweled underwater palaces, and the capital of these exotic worlds was Bhogavati, ruled by the snake-king Takshaka (Nigg, 2002).
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