~ Aitvaras
~ Amphisbaena
~ Basilisk/ Cockatrice
~ Hydra
~ Lindworm
~ Peluda
~ Puk
~ Salamander
~ Scytale
~ Tazelworm
~ Western Dragon
- Drake
- Dragonet
- Wyvern
~ Worm
Of the animal kingdom, the European or Western dragon is the king of evil, the opposition to light and the chaotic counterpart to order. Though the dragon has plagued mankind since early times as a physical manifestation of sickness, war and death, the dragon has somehow, despite standing for nothing short of our greatest foe, instilled a modified form of respected awe in the minds of many. Of course, with a fiery breath, massive teeth, sharp claws and an armoured, whip-like tail, it is not hard to see how such a dangerous creature would demand nothing short of our respect and fear.
Early dragons appear in ancient Greek myths, such as the serpent Python who was created by the goddess Hera to chase Leto (Graves, 1985), who had lain with Hera's husband Zeus, or the dragon Illuyankas who fought against the Weather God (Fontenrose, 1959). These, along with many more, were frequently portrayed with malicious intent and satiated their battlelust with fervent vigour- a personality trait that has, on a more bestial level, been mirrored exactly with later dragons.
Dragonkind essentially evolved as a fantastical elaboration of the ancient snake or serpent (dragons are absent from countries without snakes, such as Ireland and New Zealand1); their serpentine bodies are a continual reflection of their ancestors, and since early times the two have been closely related. This relationship may have began with "anguis", the star Draco ("Dragon"), named so because the word is ascribed to serpents who are continually bent and crooked (White, 1969). Snakes were also known to "glide" with their serpentine coils (colubrosus), which symbolically and quite literally was likely to have been the starting point of the dragon's ascention into the sky as a flying beast (White, 1969).
Elements of humanity were often present in early dragons, as seen in Typhon (Fontenrose, 1959), which would explain a great deal of mankind's attraction to the dragon, for it possibly originated from the carnal, darker part of our minds. As the dragon continued to adapt and remove itself from any conceivable animal group, it further threaded itself into its own unique sphere of existence. Still, there remained something familiar within the dragon which mankind perhaps recognised; some subconscious, forbidden aspect of ourselves that, as the dragon further evolved into its own creature, became more exotic and alien.
This is opitimised with the dragon's Draconce or Dragon-stone, the precious, luck-giving gem dragons wear on their foreheads (Nigg, 2002), and the large treasure hoards they so famously guard.
The earliest definition of 'dragon' in modern culture described "a huge serpent or snake; a python", and indeed this is true, as the dragon has long been considered the largest not only of serpents, but of all living creatures on Earth (White, 1969). The word dragon itself, originally from the Greek draconta or drakon, (later to be turned into the Latin draco), consistently pertained to any large mythological snake or serpent, though in recent years the term has been refined to refer explicitly to the six-limbed, fire-breathing dragon.
Because the dragon first began as a snake or serpent, its evolving form has broadened the dragon whole to include a wide range of family members, from the early worm dragons; including the original worm, the lindworm, tazelworm and amphisbaena, to the chimerical cockatrice and its preceding basilisk. The wyvern, six-limbed dragon and dragonet were also a product of change. Of the European dragons, the Greek multi-headed hydra2 alone was born independently from the rest of its family- though it came directly from the primal serpent like the worm dragons, its seems to have originated from a single myth (Hercules and the Lernean Swamp Hydra) and its multiple, self-producing snake heads have always set it apart from these earliest worm dragons. It wasn't until later years that the hydra was really classed as a member of the infamous dragon family.
Dragons eventually went on to dominate the serpent world; typical Western dragons (fire-breathers with six limbs) are known as the kings of all large serpents, and the smaller, extremely deadly basilisk was given the title as the king of all small serpents (Bullfinch, year unknown). In Norway, a grand meeting or gathering of snakes known as the ormetinget, taking place annually on Midsummer's Eve (or near Michaelmass) in May, decides the ruler of the snakes as they battle one another for the title of drage (dragon [Grambo, 1964-5]). Forming a circle, the snakes face one another and hiss and spit loudly until one is forced into the middle, after which the other snakes will bite and poison the hapless creature until it is reduced to nothing but a mound of flesh, which gradually hardens to become a precious stone called the adderstone (Grambo, 1964-5). The snakes then flee and drink from the nearest water source; the first to return and bite the adderstone is proclaimed the drage (Grambo, 1964-5).
The immense variety of forms in the European dragon is best appreciated when comparing the creatures directly. From more "primitive" reptilian forms such as the worm (A), salamander (B) and peluda (C), develop more derived, "advanced" forms such as the wyvern (D), western dragon (E) and dragonet (F). Finally there are chimerical dragons, a mix of several beasts, and in this category we find the basilisk (G) and tazelworm (H).[Picture Top]
It is general knowledge dragons were well known before the Middle Ages (which began in ~1100 AD [Encarta, 2003]), but the extent to which they played a part in classical society and culture before this time is perhaps a little more vague. Famed for their appearances on the prows of Viking ships, dragons were also a symbol for esoteric aspects of worldly and otherworldly life, appearing in one of the largest collection of runic graffiti yet found at Maes Howe, a prehistoric (and re-established in the ninth century AD by the Norse) burial mound at Orkney, off Scotland's north coast. The runes speak of a walrus, serpent and naturally, a dragon (Bahn, 1997). Dragons were held not in reverence (unless we count fearful awe as a form of reverence), but in terror and loathing for the sinful darkness they had long been associated with, and for the greed and lust they inspired in mankind. This attitude is reinforced in tales such as Beowulf and the dragon, and was justified time and again by numerous dragon sightings which foretold of disaster on a large-scale, such as the sighting of 795 AD:
Fearful lightings and dragons blazing in a dreadful manner were seen to fly through the air, signs which foreshadowed a mighty famine (Whitlock, 1983, p. 17).
Though in previous years the dragon had always been associated with evil and darkness, it wasn't until the Middle Ages that this began to evolve. Now, dragons were seen not always seen as a great, untamable beast that would leave a fiery path where and when it chose. Though they had often been fought and destroyed in the past by numerous slayers, warriors and heroes, with the rise of the Christian church mankind was given hope against this great evil and began to challenge the master of fire, land and sky which had plagued the European world for so long. Rather than be the great, dominating oppressor of earlier years, new hope had been lit and they became, instead, an obstacle to redemption. Submission to evil was no longer a necessity.
Because of their dark nature, it is no suprise that the dragon's linkages were with burial sites, where they were frequently shown as the guardian of the dead and the burial mound (Davidson, 1964), for their obsessive drive to hoard and guard makes this beast an effective keeper and watcher. They were depicted repeatedly as fire-breathers, going so far as to not only breathe fire from their mouth, but on occasion to make houses and villages combust simply by being in close proximity (Whitlock, 1983).
In contrast, dragons- particularly the worm type- were linked to water, such as the lindworm who lives in water bodies (Shuker, 2004). This is symbolic of the worm's paternal role as the first form of the European dragon, as water is traditionally a life-bringing force. The hydra too is linked to the aquatic element, often lairing near wet areas such as springs, swamps or lakes (White, 1969).
As previously discussed, there are many dragon types and forms within the Western sphere. There is often little physical difference between the serpent dragon and the snake, however dragons are distinguished by the crown or fins they have atop their heads, or the beards fringing their chins (Byrne [ed], 1979). Other dragons are easily separated from the natural snake by the presence of legs or wings, often both; regardless of their morphology, all dragons can be quickly identified for their special abilities and properties.
Dragon body parts hold curative potential and through consumption, often endow mankind with supernatural abilities. This was exemplified with the blood of the Norse dragon Fafnir, whose slayer Sigurd roasted the dead dragon's heart and, after testing the blood to see if the meat was tender, instantly understood the language of animals (Guerber, 1909). As mentioned earlier, dragons wear a valuable luck-filled stone on their foreheads (Nigg, 2002), and dragon's teeth planted into the ground will reap a crop of battle-ready soldiers (Couch, 1997). However, their body parts are not always advantageous, for their blood (despite being of benefit to Sigurd) is an acidic, flesh-eating substance that can kill when it touches the skin (Dragon Fantastic, 2001), and the dragon-stone on their forehead is readily cursed if removed post-mortem rather than before the slaying (Nigg, 2002).
Despite the dragons kingship over all other serpents, the dragon does not come without its enemies in the animal kingdom. The panther, as a symbol of the Lord Jesus Christ (Mermier, 1992), breaks the dragons stranglehold over the wild animals which it keeps in fear by eating a large meal. The panther or pantera then goes for a long sleep and, when it wakes, roars and emits a sweet odour from its mouth which the animals follow (Baxter, 1998; Mermier, 1992). Only the dragon is left motionless in its underground den, numb with shock, while outside the animals rejoice in their freedom and follow the panther wherever it goes (Baxter, 1998; Mermier, 1992). The burnt bones of an elephant, another of the dragons enemies, also give off a sweet scent that causes serpents and dragons to flee; nam et ossa et pellis de elephante in quocumque loco vel domo fuerint incensa, statim odor eorum expellit inde et fugat serpentes, or "the bones and hide of the elephant, when burnt in any place or house, at once give off an odour so that serpents flee" (Baxter, 1998, p. 56).
The dragon and the stag also share an animosity- when the stag sees a serpent, it fills the serpents lair with water from its mouth and thus forces the serpent to reveal itself, after which the stag crushes it with its hooves. This is also symbolic of the Lord Jesus and the Devil, as when Christ recognises a possessed man he drives out the demon with his words of holy truth; cuius non potest antiquus draco suffere sermones, which translates "the old dragon which cannot stand his words" (Baxter, 1998; Mermier, 1992).
The basilisk dragon is enemies with the cock or rooster whose crow sends it into convulsions, and the weasel who, not only is immune to the dragon's deadly gaze, but by protecting itself through consumption of a rue plant, bites the basilisk to death (Bullfinch, year unknown).
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