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The ethnic cleansing culminated in the of more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys in July 1995, which was ruled to have been a by the ICTY. Between 64,000 and 79,000 Bosnian Croats were killed between April 1941 to May 1945. They are armed with a mix of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European-made weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment.
Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire. Retrieved 6 April 2015. Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Search Results - bosna - Archived from on 2 August 2009. It dates from 1903, but its popularity grew significantly after World War I.
It is bordered by to the north and west; to the east; to the southeast; and the to the south, with a coastline about 20 kilometres 12 miles long surrounding the town of. In the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland, , is a geographically larger region and has a moderate , with hot summers and cold and snowy winters. The southern tip, , has a and plain topography. Bosnia and Herzegovina traces permanent human settlement back to the age, during and after which it was populated by several and civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, having been first settled by the that populate the area today from the 6th through to the 9th centuries. In the 12th century the was established, which evolved into the in the 14th century, after which it was annexed into the , under whose rule it remained from the mid-15th to the late 19th centuries. The brought to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by , which lasted up until. In the interwar period, Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the and after , it was granted full republic status in the newly formed. Following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the republic in 1992, which was followed by the , lasting until. Bosnia and Herzegovina maintains high levels and is one of the , projected to have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020. It is known for its natural environment and inherited from six historical civilizations, its , , its eclectic and unique , and its , some of which are the largest and most prominent of their kind in Southeastern Europe. The country is home to three main ethnic groups or, officially, , as specified in the constitution. A native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is usually identified in English as a. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. However, the central government's power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized and comprises two autonomous entities: the and , with a third region, the , governed under local government. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10. The country is a and has been a candidate for membership since April 2010, when it received a at a summit in. The country has been a member of the since April 2002 and a founding member of the upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the of the river coursing through the Bosnian heartland. Hum, formerly , was an early medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. The region was administered by the Ottomans as the Hersek within the up until the formation of the short-lived in the 1830s, which remerged in the 1850s, after which the entity became commonly known as Bosnia and Herzegovina. The earliest Neolithic population became known in the as the. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different people speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and started in 229 BC, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9. It was precisely in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the , as described by the Roman historian. This was the Roman campaign against , known as. The conflict arose after an attempt to recruit Illyrians, and a revolt spanned for four years 6—9 AD , after which they were subdued. In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region. Following the split of the Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the. Some claim that the region was conquered by the in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between the and the. By the 6th century, Emperor had reconquered the area for the. Slavs overwhelmed the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Illyrian cultural traits were adopted by the South Slavs, as evidenced in certain customs and traditions, placenames, etc. T E Gregory, A History of Byzantium. Pg 169 Middle Ages , illustrated slavic manuscript from medieval Bosnia. The raided the Western Balkans, including Bosnia, in the 6th and early 7th century amid the , and were composed of small tribal units drawn from a single Slavic confederation known to the as the whilst the related , roughly speaking, colonized the eastern portions of the Balkans. The bulk of Bosnia proper, however, appears to have been a territory between Serb and Croat rule and is not enumerated as one of the regions settled by those tribes. Bosnia is first mentioned as a land horion Bosona in Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus' in the mid 10th century, at the end of a chapter Chap. In fact, the very translation of the critical sentence where the word Bosona Bosnia appears is subject to varying interpretation. In time, Bosnia formed a unit under its own ruler, who called himself Bosnian. Bosnia, along with other territories, became part of in the 11th century, although it retained its own nobility and institutions. Bosnia in the Middle Ages spanning the and the succeeding. In the political circumstance led to the area being contested between the and the. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as the under the rule of local. The first Bosnian ban known by name was. The second was whose rule marked the start of a controversy involving the — considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254. The names Serb and Croat, though occasionally appearing in peripheral areas, were not used in Bosnia proper. Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by a power struggle between the and families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when became Ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his ambitious nephew who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. By the year 1377, Bosnia was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko as the first in Mile near in the Bosnian heartland. Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The had already started its and posed a major threat to the throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463 after its conquest by the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity — a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans. Within Bosnia the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation. The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups due to lack of strong Christian church organizations and continuous rivalry between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, while the indigenous disappeared altogether ostensibly by conversion of its members to Islam. The Bosnian and the Catholic population as a whole were protected by official imperial decrees and in accordance and full extent of Ottoman laws, however in effect, these often merely affected arbitrary rule and behavior of powerful local elite. As the Ottoman Empire continued their rule in the , Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province, and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and , were established and grew into regional centers of trade and and were then visited by traveler in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works of such as the country's first library in , , a school of , and a Sahat Kula , bridges such as the , the and the. Bosnian recruits formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of and , while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals such as ; generals such as , and and ; administrators such as and ; and such as the influential and. Some Bosnians emerged as mystics, scholars such as , ; and poets in the , , , and. Austro-Hungarian troops , 1878 However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the with the in 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The following century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms. Mahmud II sent his to subdue Bosnia Eyalet and succeeded only with the reluctant assistance of. Related rebellions were extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the , a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation that eventually led to the and the in 1878. Austro-Hungarian rule 1878—1918 Dome and towers on the Academy of Arts in Sarajevo, designed by the Czech-born architect At the in 1878, the Foreign Minister obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the , which remained under administration until 1908, when the Austro-Hungarian troops withdrew from the Sanjak. Although Austro-Hungarian officials quickly came to an agreement with Bosnians, tensions remained and a mass emigration of Bosnians occurred. Austria-Hungary began to plan annexation of Bosnia and consulted German and Russian diplomats about that prospect since the 1880s, but the issue was not resolved until the annexation crisis of 1908. Several external matters affected status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria-Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade. Then in 1908, the revolt in the raised concerns that the Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia-Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later. Despite international furor and objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austrian-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina in March 1909. In 1910, Habsburg emperor Franz Joseph proclaimed the first constitution in Bosnia, which led to relaxation of earlier laws, elections and formation of the Bosnian parliament, and growth of new political life. Assassination of and in Sarajevo, illustrated in the Italian newspaper , 12 July 1914 by On 28 June 1914, a Yugoslav nationalist youth named , a member of the secret Serbian-supported movement, , the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, , in Sarajevo—an event that was the spark that set off World War I. At the end of the war, the had lost more men per capita than any other ethnic group in the Habsburg Empire whilst serving in the known as Bosniaken of the. Nonetheless, Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed. The Austro-Hungarian authorities established an auxiliary militia known as the with a moot role in the empire's policy of repression. Schutzkorps, predominantly recruited among the Muslim Bosniak population, were tasked with hunting down rebel Serbs the and and became known for their persecution of particularly in Serb populated areas of eastern Bosnia, where they partly retaliated against Serbian who in fall 1914 had carried out attacks against the Muslim population in the area. The proceedings of the Austro-Hungarian authorities led to around 5,500 citizens of Serb ethnicity in Bosnia and Herzegovina being arrested, and between 700 and 2,200 died in prison while 460 were executed. Around 5,200 Serb families were forcibly expelled from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1918—1941 Main article: Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav soon renamed Yugoslavia. Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over , and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosniaks; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austro-Hungary, Muslims Bosniaks owned 91. Following the reforms Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land. Although the initial split of the country into 33 erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into or that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The that created the in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a between Croatia and Serbia. However the rising threat of 's forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention. Following a period that saw attempts at , the signing of the , and a , Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941. World War II 1941—45 The railway bridge over the in , twice destroyed during the Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Nazi puppet regime, the NDH. The NDH leaders embarked on a of Serbs, Jews, as well as dissident Croats, and, later, 's by setting up a number of. An estimated 209,000 Serbs and Montenegrins were killed on the territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina during the war. Although Croats were by far the largest ethnic group to constitute the Ustaše, the Vice President of the NDH and leader of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization was a Muslim, and Muslims Bosniaks in total constituted nearly 12% of the Ustaše military and civil service authority. Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the , a Serb nationalist movement with the aim of establishing an ethnically homogeneous '' state. The Chetniks, in turn, persecuted and killed a large number of non-Serbs and Communist sympathizers, with the Muslim population of Bosnia, Herzegovina and being a primary target. Once captured, Muslim villagers were systematically massacred by the Chetniks. Of the 75,000 Muslims who lost their lives in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war, approximately 30,000 mostly civilians were killed by the Chetniks. A percentage of Muslims served in Nazi units. Between 64,000 and 79,000 Bosnian Croats were killed between April 1941 to May 1945. Of these, about 18,000 were killed by the Chetniks. Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the , who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On 29 November 1943 the with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of fighting. More than 300,000 people died in Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II. At the end of the war the establishment of the , with the , officially made Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state. Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia 1945—1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina's flag while in the Due to its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was selected as a base for the development of the industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia; a significant factor in in the 1990s. However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was a peaceful and very prosperous country, with high employment, a strong industrial and export oriented economy, good education system and social and medical security for every citizen of S. Several international corporations operated in Bosnia— car factory in Sarajevo, from 1972 , from 1975 , SKF Sweden from 1967 , Marlboro, a tobacco factory in Sarajevo , and hotels. Sarajevo was the site of the. During the 1950s and 1960s Bosnia was a political backwater of the Republic of Yugoslavia. In the 1970s a strong Bosnian political elite arose, fueled in part by Tito's leadership in the and Bosnians serving in Yugoslavia's. While working within the Socialist system, politicians such as , and reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic did not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence. A second round followed on 25 November, resulting in a where communist power was replaced by a of three ethnically-based parties. Following and 's declarations of independence from Yugoslavia, a significant split developed among the residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the issue of whether to remain within Yugoslavia overwhelmingly favored by Serbs or seek independence overwhelmingly favored by Bosniaks and Croats. This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which was renamed in August 1992. On 18 November 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the HDZ , proclaimed the existence of the , with the HVO as its military branch. It went unrecognized by the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which declared it illegal. The turnout in the independence referendum was 63. Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992 and received international recognition the following month on 6 April 1992. The was subsequently admitted as a member state of the United Nations on 22 May 1992. Serbian leader and Croatian leader are believed to have agreed on a in March 1991, with the aim of establishing and. Following Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of independence, Bosnian Serb militias mobilized in different parts of the country. Government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war. International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the JNA to withdraw from the republic's territory, which they officially did in June 1992. The Bosnian Serb members of the JNA simply changed insignia, formed the VRS , and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the , Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control. The Bosnian Serb advance was accompanied by the of Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats from VRS-controlled areas. This was accompanied by the establishment of concentration camps, in which inmates were subjected to violence and abuse, including rape. The ethnic cleansing culminated in the of more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys in July 1995, which was ruled to have been a by the ICTY. Bosniak and Bosnian Croat forces also committed war crimes against civilians from different ethnic groups, though on a smaller scale. Most of the Bosniak and Croat atrocities were committed during the , a sub-conflict of the Bosnian War that pitted the ARBiH against the HVO. The Bosniak-Croat conflict ended in March 1994, with the signing of the , leading to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat , which amalgamated HVO-held territory with that held by the ARBiH. The agreement brought an end to active combat and roughly established the basic political structure of the present-day state. A was immediately dispatched to the country to enforce the agreement. An estimated 100,000 people were killed in the war, about two-thirds of whom were Bosniak. According to a number of ICTY judgements, the conflict involved Bosnia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia subsequently as well as. Dozens of Bosnian Serb officials and soldiers have been convicted for their role in war crimes and crimes against humanity during the conflict, as well as for the genocide in Srebrenica. High-ranking Croat and Bosniak officials have also been convicted or indicted for war crimes. The remains of victims are still being unearthed two decades later. After the war, the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina brought a lawsuit against Serbia before the ICJ , accusing the country of genocide. In 2007, the ICJ exonerated Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by Bosnian Serb forces in Srebrenica, but concluded that the country had not done enough to prevent the massacre. Protests in 2014 Tuzla government building burning after anti-government clashes on 7 February 2014 On 4 February 2014, the protests against the government of the , one of the country's two entities, dubbed the Bosnian Spring, the name being taken from the , began in the northern town of. Workers from several factories that had been privatised and had gone bankrupt united to demand action over jobs, and unpaid salaries and pensions. Soon protests spread to the rest of the Federation, with violent clashes reported in close to 20 towns, the biggest of which were , , , , and Tuzla. The Bosnian news media reported that hundreds of people had been injured during the protests, including dozens of police officers, with bursts of violence in Sarajevo, in the northern city of Tuzla, in Mostar in the south, and in Zenica in central Bosnia. The same level of unrest or activism did not occur in the , but hundreds of people also gathered in support of protests in the town of against its separate government. The protests marked the largest outbreak of public anger over high unemployment and two decades of political inertia in the country since the end of the Bosnian War in 1995. Bosnia occupies the northern areas, roughly four-fifths of the entire country—and Herzegovina occupies the rest of the southern part of the country. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central. The northeastern parts reach into the , while in the south it borders the. The Dinaric Alps generally run in a southeast-northwest direction, and get higher towards the south. The highest point of the country is the peak of at 2,386 metres 7,828. Major mountains include , , , , , , , and. The geological composition of the Dinaric chain of mountains in Bosnia consists primarily of including limestone , with deposits of , , , , , , and present in some areas, especially in central and northern Bosnia. Overall, close to 50% of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested. Most forest areas are in the centre, east and west parts of Bosnia. Herzegovina has drier Mediterranean climate, with dominant topography. Northern Bosnia contains very fertile agricultural land along the River Sava and the corresponding area is heavily farmed. This farmland is a part of the Pannonian Plain stretching into neighboring Croatia and Serbia. The country has only 20 kilometres 12 miles of coastline, around the town of in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton. Although the city is surrounded by Croatian peninsulas, by international law, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a to the outer sea. Other major cities are and in the northwest region known as , and in the northeast, in the central part of Bosnia and , the largest city in. It drains 76% of the country's territory into the Danube and then the Black Sea. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the ICPDR. They are located in the northwestern region of Bosanska Krajina. It stretches through central Bosnia, from its source near to Sava in the north. According to the , the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina can be subdivided into three : the Pannonian , Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian. Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of the FBiH ; RS ; and BD. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a. It has several levels of political structuring, according to the. The most important of these levels is the division of the country into two entities: and the. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while Republika Srpska covers 49%. The entities, based largely on the territories held by the two warring sides at the time, were formally established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 because of the tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. Since 1996, the power of the entities relative to the State government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The in the north of the country was created in 2000, out of land from both entities. It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. For election purposes, Brčko District voters can choose to participate in either the Federation or Republika Srpska elections. The Brčko District has been praised for maintaining a multiethnic population and a level of prosperity significantly above the national average. The in central Sarajevo The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision is manifested in. They are unique to the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, which consists of ten of them. All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special laws implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent people. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided in 74 municipalities, and Republika Srpska in 63. Municipalities also have their own local government, and are typically based on the most significant city or place in their territory. As such, many municipalities have a long tradition and history with their present boundaries. Some others, however, were only created following the recent war after traditional municipalities were split by the. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities. These are: , , , and. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons or the entity, in the case of Republika Srpska. As a result of the , the civilian peace implementation is supervised by the selected by the. The High Representative has many governmental and legislative powers, including the dismissal of elected and non-elected officials. More recently, several central institutions have been established such as , security ministry, state court, service and so on in the process of transferring part of the jurisdiction from the entities to the state. The representation of the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina is by elites who represent the country's three major groups, with each having a guaranteed share of power. The Chair of the rotates among three members , , , each elected as the Chair for an eight-month term within their four-year term as a member. The three members of the are elected directly by the people with Federation voters voting for the Bosniak and the Croat, and the voters for the Serb. The Chair of the is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate. The is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the and the. The House of Peoples has 15 delegates chosen by parliaments of the entities, two-thirds of which come from the Federation 5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks and one-third from the Republika Srpska 5 Serbs. The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members elected by the people under a form of PR , two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the after consultation with the Presidency, but cannot be Bosnian citizens. Since 1995, the High Representative has been able to bypass the elected parliamentary assembly, and since 1997 has been able to remove elected officials. The methods selected by the High Representative have been criticized as undemocratic. International supervision is to end when the country is deemed politically and democratically stable and self-sustaining. Military This section relies largely or entirely on a single. Relevant discussion may be found on the. Please help by introducing to additional sources. March 2018 The were unified into a single entity in 2005, with the merger of the and the , which had defended their respective regions. The was founded in 2004. The Bosnian military consists of the and. The Ground Forces number 14,725 active and 7,000 reserve personnel. They are armed with a mix of American, Yugoslavian, Soviet, and European-made weaponry, vehicles, and military equipment. The Air Force and Air Defense Forces have 3,000 personnel and about 62 aircraft. The Air Defense Forces operate hand-held missiles, SAM batteries, anti-aircraft cannons, and radar. The Army has recently adopted remodeled uniforms, used by Bosnian soldiers serving with in. A domestic production program is now underway to ensure that army units are equipped with the correct ammunition. Beginning in 2007, the undertook the army's first ever international assistance mission, enlisting the military to serve with peace missions to , and the in 2007. All three deployed groups have been commended by their respective international forces as well as the. The international assistance operations are still ongoing. The Air Force and Anti-Aircraft Defence Brigade of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed when elements of the and the were merged in 2006. The has seen improvements in the last few years with added funds for aircraft repairs and improved cooperation with the as well as to the citizens of the country. The is currently pursuing the acquisition of new aircraft including helicopters and perhaps even fighter jets. Foreign relations See also: is one of the main political objectives of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it initiated the in 2007. Countries participating in the SAP have been offered the possibility to become, once they fulfill the necessary conditions, Member States of the EU. Bosnia and Herzegovina is therefore a potential candidate country for EU accession. The implementation of the of 1995 has focused the efforts of policymakers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the countries-successors of the. On 23 April 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovina received the from , which is the last step before full membership in the alliance. Full membership was expected in 2014 or 2015, depending on the progress of reforms. Main articles: and According to the , Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,377,000, while the 1996 UNHCR unofficial census showed a decrease to 3,920,000. Between 1991 and 2013, political disagreements made it impossible to organize a census. A census had been planned for 2011, and then for 2012, but was delayed until October 2013. The found a total population of 3,791,622 people in 1. According to data from published by the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks constitute 50. The census results are contested by the Republika Srpska statistical office and by Bosnian Serb politicians. The dispute over the census concerns the inclusion of non-permanent Bosnian residents in the figures, which Republika Srpska officials oppose. The 's statistics office, , concluded in May 2016 that the census methodology used by the Bosnian statistical agency is in line with international recommendations. Religion 3% According to the 2013 census, is the majority faith in Bosnia and Herzegovina, making up 51% of the population. The smallest groups are 0. A 2012 survey found that 54% of Bosnia's are , while 38% follow. Languages Bosnia's constitution does not specify any official languages. The equal status of Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian was verified by the Constitutional Court in 2000. As a result, the wording of the entity constitutions was changed and all three languages were made official in both entities. The three are fully and are known collectively under the appellation of , despite this term not being formally recognized in the country. Use of one of the three languages has become a marker of ethnic identity. According to the 1992 , Bosnia and Herzegovina recognizes the following minority languages: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and Jewish and. The German minority in Bosnia and Herzegovina are mostly remnants of Danube Swabians , who settled in the area after the claimed the Balkans from the. Due to and after the two , the number of ethnic Germans in Bosnia and Herzegovina was drastically diminished. In a 2013 census, 52. Cities is home to 395,133 inhabitants in its urban area which comprises the as well as municipalities of , , , and. The has a population of 555,210 and includes , and municipalities , , and. Graphical depiction of Bosnia and Herzegovina's product exports in 28 color-coded categories Bosnia faces the dual-problem of rebuilding a war-torn country and introducing transitional liberal market reforms to its formerly mixed economy. One legacy of the previous era is a strong industry; under former republic president and SFRY President , metal industries were promoted in the republic, resulting in the development of a large share of Yugoslavia's plants; S. Bosnia and Herzegovina had a very strong industrial export oriented economy in the 1970s and 1980s, with large scale exports worth millions of. For most of Bosnia's history, agriculture has been conducted on privately owned farms; Fresh food has traditionally been exported from the republic. The war in the 1990s, caused a dramatic change in the Bosnian economy. GDP fell by 60% and the destruction of physical infrastructure devastated the economy. With much of the production capacity unrestored, the Bosnian economy still faces considerable difficulties. Figures show GDP and per capita income increased 10% from 2003 to 2004; this and Bosnia's shrinking being negative trends, and high unemployment 38. The national currency is the Euro-pegged KM , controlled by the. Annual inflation is the lowest relative to other countries in the region at 1. Bosnia and Herzegovina has displayed positive progress in the previous years, which decisively moved its place from the lowest income equality rank of fourteen out of 193 nations. According to data, Bosnia and Herzegovina's PPS GDP per capita stood at 29 per cent of the EU average in 2010. This was scheduled to be approved in September 2012. It can be viewed on. By some estimates, is 25. The has increased by 3% compared to the previous year and now it is 61 percent. In 2017, Bosnia and Herzegovina mostly exported , , , and. In the same year, it mostly imported , , , and. The unemployment rate in 2017 was 20. In 2018, the unemployment should be 19. In 2020, the unemployment rate should go down to 18. In the first quarter of 2018, the exports grew by 12%. Transport Main article: The Bosnian communications market was fully liberalised in January 2006. There are three telephone providers, although each one predominantly serves a partile services are provided by three operators, with nationwide services. Mobile data services are also available, including high-speed and services. Liberation , founded in 1943, is one of the country's longest running continuously circulating newspapers. There are many national publications, only some of which include the Daily Voice , founded in 1995, and Jutarnje Novine Morning News in circulation in Sarajevo. Other local periodicals include the Croatian newspaper and the Bosnian magazine , as well as the weekly newspapers Slobodna Bosna Free Bosnia and BH Dani BH Days. The international news station maintains a sister channel that caters to the region, , broadcasting out of and based in Sarajevo. Since 2014, the began broadcasting as an affiliate of and has headquarters in Sarajevo, Zagreb, and Belgrade. Additionally, the country is the most liberal in terms of in the region, ranking 43rd internationally. As of December 2017, there are 3,064,072 internet users in the country or 86. According to projections by the , Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020. In 2012, 747,827 tourists visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, an increase of 9%, and had 1,645,521 overnight hotel stays, a 9. In 2006, when ranking the best cities in the world, placed , the and host of the , as 43, ahead of at 59, at 84, at 90, at 113, and at 135. Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects. It has been estimated that 30 million pilgrims have come to Međugorje since the reputed apparitions began in 1981. Bosnia has also become an increasingly popular skiing and destination. Bosnia and Herzegovina remains one of the last undiscovered natural regions of the southern area of the Alps, with vast tracts of wild and untouched nature attracting adventurers and nature lovers. The central are favored by hikers and mountaineers, containing both Mediterranean and Alpine climates. The best way to experience is the three rivers trip, which purls through the best the Balkans have to offer. The first bespoke higher-education institution was a school of philosophy established by in 1531. Numerous other religious schools then followed. In 1887, under the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a law school began a five-year program. In the 1940s the became the city's first secular higher education institute. In the 1950s post-bachelaurate graduate degrees became available. Severely damaged during the war, it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universities. There are various other institutions of higher education, including: , , , , , and the , which is held in high regard as one of the most prestigious creative arts academies in the region. Secondary education is provided by general and technical secondary schools typically where studies typically last for four years. All forms of secondary schooling include an element of. Pupils graduating from general secondary schools obtain the and can enroll in any tertiary educational institution or academy by passing a qualification examination prescribed by the governing body or institution. Students graduating technical subjects obtain a. Some television, magazines, and newspapers in Bosnia and Herzegovina are state-owned, and some are for-profit corporations funded by , , and other sales-related revenues. As a with a post-war legacy and a Bosnia and Herzegovina's media system is under transformation. In the early post-war period 1995—2005 , media development was guided mainly by international donors and cooperation agencies, who invested to help reconstruct, diversify, democratize and professionalize media outlets. Post-war developments included the establishment of an independent Communication Regulatory Agency, the adoption of a Press Code, the establishment of the Press Council, the decriminalization of label and defamation, the introduction of a rather advanced Freedom of Access to Information Law, and the creation of a Public Service Broadcasting System from the formerly state-owned broadcaster. Yet, internationally backed positive developments have been often obstructed by domestic elites, and the professionalisation of media and journalists has proceeded only slowly. High levels of partisanship and linkages between the media and the political systems hinder the adherence to professional code of conducts. Literature Stećci from Radimlja, near 13th century The art of Bosnia and Herzegovina was always evolving and ranged from the original medieval tombstones called to paintings in court. However, only with the arrival of Austro-Hungarians did the painting renaissance in Bosnia really begin to flourish. The first educated artists from European academies appeared with the beginning of the 20th century. Among those are: , , and. After World War II artists like and rose in popularity. In 2007, , a museum of contemporary art that includes works by renowned world artists was founded in Sarajevo. Music See also: Typical Bosnian and Herzegovinian songs are ganga, rera, and the traditional Slavic music for the folk dances such as and from Ottoman era the most popular is. Pop and Rock music has a tradition here as well, with the more famous musicians including , , , , , , , and. Other composers such as , , , , and many pop and , for example, , , , , , , , , who were among the leading ones in the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia is home to the composer , the creator of the current of Bosnia and Herzegovina and father of singer , to the world known jazz musician, educator and Bosnian jazz ambassador , composer and pianist. In the villages, especially in Herzegovina, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats play the ancient. The gusle is used mainly to recite epic poems in a usually dramatic tone. Sevdalinkas were traditionally performed with a , a Turkish string instrument, which was later replaced by the accordion. However the more modern arrangement, to the derision of some purists, is typically a vocalist accompanied by the accordion along with snare drums, upright bass, guitars, clarinets and violins. Cinema and theatre Main article: Sarajevo is internationally renowned for its eclectic and diverse selection of festivals. The was established in 1995, during the Bosnian War and has become the premier and largest film festival in the Balkans and South-East Europe. Bosnia has a rich cinematic and film heritage, dating back to the ; many Bosnian filmmakers have achieved international prominence and some have won international awards ranging from the to multiple and. A waitress in the Old City of wearing traditional dress. Bosnian cuisine uses many spices, in moderate quantities. Most dishes are light, as they are cooked in lots of water; the sauces are fully natural, consisting of little more than the natural juices of the vegetables in the dish. Typical ingredients include tomatoes, potatoes, onions, , , , carrots, , , , , , fresh beans, , milk, and cream called. Bosnian cuisine is balanced between and influences. As a result of the administration for almost 500 years, Bosnian food is closely related to , , and other former and cuisines. However, because of years of Austrian rule, there are many influences from Central Europe. Typical meat dishes include primarily beef and. Some local specialties are , , , , , , and a whole range of Eastern sweets. Ćevapi is a grilled dish of minced meat, a type of , popular in former Yugoslavia and considered a national dish in Bosnia and Herzegovina and. Local wines come from where the climate is suitable for growing grapes. Herzegovinian loza similar to Italian but less sweet is very popular. Plum rakija or apple jabukovača alcohol beverages are produced in the north. In the south, distilleries used to produce vast quantities of and supply all of ex-Yugoslav alcohol factories brandy is the base of most. Leisure activities Coffeehouses, where is served in with and sugar cubes, proliferate and every city in the country. Coffee drinking is a favorite Bosnian pastime and part of the culture. Bosnia and Herzegovina is the ninth country in the entire world by per capita coffee consumption. Sports The in Sarajevo hosted the opening ceremony to the Bosnia and Herzegovina has produced many athletes, both as a state in Yugoslavia and independently after 1992. The most important international in the was the , held in from 7 to 19 February 1984. The club has won seven , as well as the in and the in 1991. Track and field athlete won the bronze medal in at the and won the silver medal in at the. The basketball club from Sarajevo were in. The , which won medals in every world championship from 1963 through 1990, included Bosnian players such as and. Bosnia and Herzegovina regularly qualifies for the , with players including , and. Women's basketball club from Tuzla won in 1989 and final in 1990, led by , three times best female European basketball player, and. The Bosnian team was seven times, in addition to club winning four. Chess grandmaster has also won two European Championships. The most impressive success of Bosnian Chess was runner-up position in of 1994 in , featuring Grandmasters , and. Middle-weight has won several Championships of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslav Championships and the. In 1978, he won the World Title against from the Bahamas. Association football is the most popular sport in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It dates from 1903, but its popularity grew significantly after World War I. Bosnian clubs and , won the Yugoslav Championship, while the included Bosnian players of all ethnic backgrounds and generations, such as , , , , , , , , , , , , and numerous others. The played at the , its first major tournament. Notable players on the team included , , , , , and. Former Bosnian footballers include , who became only the second Bosnian to ever win a trophy, after. He made 234 appearances and scored 31 goals for German club. Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world champion of and. 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The following century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. Archived from on 22 May 2011. Each canton in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of several municipalities, which are divided into local communities. Conflict between the Illyrians and started in 229 BC, but Rome did not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9. Heureusement, vous pouvez avoir accčs GRATUITEMENT pendant 7 jours! In the same year, it mostly imported , , , and. All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Local wines come from where the climate is suitable for growing grapes.
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