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Ovo je glavno značenje pojma Kukci. Za gradsko naselje Poreča, pogledajte Kukci (Poreč).
?Kukci
Raspon fosila: Karbon - Nedavno

Pčela
Sistematika
Carstvo: Animalia
Koljeno: Arthropoda
Potkoljeno: Hexapoda
Razred: Insecta
Linnaeus, 1758.
Koljena i redovi
Vidi sistematiku u tekstu


Shema anatomije kukaca
A – Glava (Caput)
B – Prsište (Toraks)
C – Zadak (Abdomen)

1. Ticalo
2. Ocellus (prednji)
3. Ocellus (gornji)
4. Kompleksno oko
5. Mozak
6. Prothorax
7. Leđna (dorsalna) arterija
8. trahea
9. Mesothorax
10. Metathorax
11. Prvi par krila
12. Drugi par krila
13. Srednje crijevo, želudac
14. Srce
15. Ovarij, jajnici
16. Stražnje crijevo, rektum
17. Anus
18. Vagina
19. Trbušni (abdomenalni) živčani sistem s ganglijama
20. Malpighian žlijezda
21. Jastuk
22. kandže
23. Tarsus
24. Tibia
25. Femur
26. Trochanter
27. Prednje crijevo
28. Thoraxganglion
29. Coxa
30. Žlijezda slinavka
31. Subesophageal ganglion
32. Usni aparat
Kukci (lat. Insecta) su vrstama najbrojniji razred velike grupe člankonožaca (Arthropoda) obuhvaća više vrsta nego sve ostale životinjske skupine zajedno. Većina ih živi na kopnu, a dobro naseljavaju i kopnene vode, dok ih svega par vrsta živi u moru. Opisano ih je, iz svih krajeva svijeta, više od 1 000 000 vrsta, prema nekima i 1 200 000 vrsta. Istraživanja probnih površina u tropskim kišnim šumama navode na mogući broj od 5 - 30 milijuna vrsta kukaca. Ova vrstama najbrojnija skupina životinja uopće, istovremeno je i najslabije istražena. Gotovo svako pravilo kod kukaca ima svoje izuzetke, pa se brojne tvrdnje odnose na većinu predstavnika ovoga razreda.
Sadržaj [sakrij]
1 Etimologija
2 Entomologija
3 Morfologija
3.1 Glava kukca: oči, ticala, usni aparat
3.2 Prsište
3.3 Krila
3.4 Noge
3.5 Zadak
4 Anatomija
4.1 Živčani sustav
4.2 Disanje i krvotok
4.3 Probava i ekskrecija
4.4 Spolni organi
5 Životni prostori
6 Način života
7 Razmnožavanje i razvoj
8 Evolucija
9 Glasanje kukaca
10 Sistematika
11 Izvori
Etimologija [uredi]

Hrvatski standardni naziv kukac zabilježen je u 17. stoljeću u Belostenjčevom kajkavskom rječniku. U uporabi je bio i stručni naziv zareznik. To je prevedenica znanstvenog naziva insekt (lat.insectare - us, "zarezati, zarezan", "urezati, urezan"), što se odnosi na izraženo odvojene dijelove tijela. Slično je i značenje grčkog naziva entomon - os.
Entomologija [uredi]

Znanost koja se bavi kukcima naziva se entomologija, a stručnjaci za kukce su entomolozi. Entomologija je opsežna po području djelovanja, te se dijeli na opću entomologiju i primjenjene entomologije. Popularna je diljem svijeta, te se njome osim znanstvenika bave i brojni amateri, te brojne znanstvene i stručne udruge.
Morfologija [uredi]

Opis vanjskog izgleda (morfologija) kukaca, odnosi se na odrasle spolno zrele jedinke, a ne na ličinke.
Veličina kukaca jako varira, većina kukaca je duga od jednog do 20 mm. Ali postoje i vrste duljine od 0,2 mm ali i duge 16 a široke 6 cm (Titanus giganteus) ili čak do 33 cm dugih jedinki nakaznika (Phasmatodea). Tijelo kukaca može biti izduženo, spljošteno ili manje-više kuglasto.
Tijelo svih kukaca izgrađeno je od hitina, koji može biti krut (čvrsti dijelovi) ili elastičan (povezivanje čvrstih dijelova). Jasno je podijeljeno na 3 osnovna dijela: glavu (Caput), prsište (Thorax) i zadak (Abdomen). Na oklopu se razlikuje leđna strana (dorzalna), trbušna strana (ventralna), te bočne strane (pleuralne). Svaki dio hitinskog vanjskog oklopa sastoji se od pojedinačnih sraslih koutića: leđnih pločica (tergiti), trbušnih pločica (sterniti) i bočnih pločica (pleuriti). Otvori kroz koje kukci dišu (stigme) otvaraju se bočno, te u tijelu prelaze u gusti kapilarni splet dišnih cjevčica traheja pomoću kojih kukci dišu, a broj traheja jako varira od vrste do vrste.
Glava kukca: oči, ticala, usni aparat [uredi]


Portret kukca
Glava kukca nastala je spajanjem 6 embrionalnih kolutića, što se odražava na vanjske i unutrašnje strukture. Na gornjoj strani glave se nalazi jedan par ticala s osjetilima za njuh), a sa svake strane glave je po jedno složeno oko. Složeno oko se može sastojati i od tisuću manjih okašaca. Mnoge vrste (cvrčci, ose, pčele, mravi) imaju i dodatne jednostavne oči na tjemenu, a služe im za lakše snalaženje u mraku. Mnoge špiljske vrste nemaju oči. Na donjoj strani hitinske čahure glave se nalaze po tri para usnih organa: gornja usna (odozgo zatvara usta), gornja i donja čeljust i donja usna, sa pipalima. Ti usni organi su prilagođeni (vrsta hrane, način prehrane) za grizenje (termiti), bodenje (komarci), lizanje (pčele) i sisanje (leptiri). Način prehrane u uskoj je vezi s načinom kretanja, pa je neki lovac mesožder npr. trčak hitar, biljožder npr. gusjenica se često dobro penje, a neki razlagač npr. balegar dobro kopa. Tu su i razne kombinacije s letenjem i bez letenja, specijalizacije građe čeljusti lovca za veći i manji plijen, ili građe rilca biljoždera (npr. duljina rilca leptira ili bumbara) za posebne biljke.
Prsište [uredi]


Prikaz rada letnih mišića. Istezanjem i stiskanjem tijela unutarnje hvatište krila mijenja položaj (gore-dolje) u odnosu na vanjsko hvatište i krila se pomiču.
a krila
b hvatišta krila
c leđnotrbušni (dorsoventralni) mišići
d uzdužni mišići.


Noge kukaca sastoje se od 6 članaka. Dijelovi noge na primjeru noge kornjaša:
a: kuk (coxa);
b: nožni prstenak (trochanter);
c: bedro (femur);
d: gnjat (tibia);
e: stopalo (tarsus);
f: predstopalo (praetarsus);
g: pandžice (ungues).
Prsište je dio na kojemu su smještene noge i krila. Glavna funkcija prsišta je pokretačka. Kukci su jedini krilati člankonošci. U prsištu su smješteni i snažni i izdržljivi mišići, koji omogućuju pokretanje nogu i krila. Prsa se, brojeći od glave, dijele na tri dijela: prototoraks, mezotoraks i metatoraks, tj. prednje, srednje i stražnje prsište. Svaki prsni kolutić nosi svoj par nogu, a srednji i zadnji imaju i svoj par krila. Što se kukac više služi krilima prsni kolutići su zbijeniji, što se više služi nogama kolutići su razdvojeniji. Na svakom dijelu nalaze se pločice, dlačice, rupice, šavovi. U prsištu su smješteni prednji dio probavnog, živčanog i dišnog sustava, te su njime povezani glava i zadak.
Krila [uredi]
Kukci uglavnom imaju dva para krila iako su nekim vrstama posebnim prilagodbama krila djelomično ili posve nestala. Nalaze se s gornje strane srednjeg i zadnjeg prsnog kolutića. Oblikom i veličinom prilagođena su njihovim životnim potrebama. Danji leptiri lagano lepršajući zamahnu krilima oko 9 puta u sekundi, noćni leptiri 70-80 puta, pčele skoro 200 puta a muhe više od 300 puta.
Raznovrsnost oblika krila i rasporeda rebara na njima omogućava raspoznavanje skupina kukaca. Kod vretenaca su oba para jednake opnaste strukture i pokreću se neovisno, kod većine drugih kukaca prednja i stražnja krila se pokreću skupa. Kod mrežokrilaca su krila isprekrižena rebrima, kod opnokrilaca i leptira su stražnja krila manja od prednjih, kod dvokrilaca su stražnja krila smanjena u neznatne maljice, kod ravnokrilaca su stražnja krila veća od prednjih, kod kornjaša su prednja krila hitinizirana u tvrdo pokrilje ispod kojega je presložen mnogo veći opnasti stražnji par krila, kod polukrilaca je jače hitinizirana samo prednja polovica prednjih krila. Krila su posve nestala u nametnika: buha, ušiju, stjenica, spiljskih kukaca. Krila su nestala samo ženkama krijesnica, nekih grbica, kod smokvine kovnarice (Blastophaga psenes) su samo mužjaci bez krila. Bez krila su radnici mrava i termita dok su spolni oblici krilati. Nametnička muha, ovčja ušara (Melophaus ovinus) leti okolo dok ne nađe domadara, a kad zasjedne na domadara odbaci krila.
Noge [uredi]
Prema upotrebi noge mogu biti hodalice, trčalice, plivalice, kopalice, skakalice, grabilice, sabiralice, čistilice. Hodalice su noge u većine kukaca, trčalice su jake noge za trčanje (npr. u trčka), plivalice su sploštene i krute stražnje noge, na rubovima proširene dugim dlakama (u vodenih polukrilaca), kopalice su kratke i raširene prednje noge (u rovaca, zujaka), skakalice su jako produljene stražnje noge sa snažnim bedrima (u skakavaca, buha), grabilice su savinute prednje noge tako da gnjat pridružen bedru omogućava hvatanje plijena (u bogomoljke), sabiralice su dlakave stražnje noge za sabiranje cvjetnog praha (u cvjetara), čistilice su nježne i dlakave prednje noge (u leptira).
Zadak [uredi]
Zadak je stražnji dio kukca u kojemu se nalazi najveći dio utrobe pa se zbog toga njegov volumen može mijenjati. Sastoji se od 11 kolutića, koji su u nekih kukaca srasli a u nekih utisnuti jedni u druge. U odraslih oblika zadak nema ekstremiteta, dok se u gusjenica i nekih opnokrilaca na zatku razvijaju lažne nožice. Na zadnjim dvama kolutićima češći su tanki člankoviti dršci (styli) ili nastavci (cerci) npr. u vodencvjetova i uholaža. Na zadnjem se kolutiću nalazi analni otvor i organi za parenje.
Anatomija [uredi]

Živčani sustav [uredi]
Živčani sustav čini niz živčanih čvorova (ganglija), koji su ljestvičasto povezani. Ganglij glave složene je strukture, najrazvijeniji kod zadružnih opnokrilaca, i to jače u radilica nego kod spolnih životinja. Kod različitih se kukaca opaža povezanost između veličine mozga i stupnja aktivnosti. Mozak pčele je 1/174 dio tijela, a hrušta 1/3290. Sa živčanim sustavom povezana su osjetila i pojedini organi, kod nekih kukaca su vidni živci veći od ostatka mozga.
Iz 3 prsna ganglija živci izlaze u noge, a od srednjeg i stražnjeg prsnog ganglija u krila. Simpatički živčani sustav opskrbljuje živčevljem utrobu.
Disanje i krvotok [uredi]
Kukci dišu preko ektoderma kroz dišne cijevi (uzdušnice, traheje), kojih ogranci zalaze u sve organe. Zrak ulazi u traheje kroz otvore na površini tijela – stigme.
Probava i ekskrecija [uredi]
Probavilo se sastoji od ždrijela, jednjaka, volje, želuca i crijeva. Njegova građa ovisi o načinu prehrane.
Spolni organi [uredi]
U većine kukaca je jasno izraženo spolno dvoličje. Dvospolci (hermafroditi) su rijetki. Spolne su žlijezde parne, leže u zatku, većinom imaju zajednički otvor ispred analnog otvora. Neki se kukci pare samo jedanput u životu, a spermiji odloženi u sjemenoj vrećici ženke oplođuju jaja godinama (npr. u pčelinje matice). Ženke nekih vrsta imaju posebnu leglicu za polaganje jaja.
Životni prostori [uredi]

Kukci su rašireni po svim kontinentima i u svim klimatskim područjima. Najčešće su kopnene životinje, samo poneki žive u slatkoj vodi, a malen broj u moru. Bitan su čimbenik u prirodi: razaraju mrtvu organsku tvar, pomažu pri oplodnji biljaka (30% europskih cvjetnica oprašuju kukci), prenose zarazne bolesti, parazitiraju na biljkama i životinjama.
Način života [uredi]

Kukci su često dobri letači. Neki mogu bez odmaranja preletjeti nekoliko stotina kilometara. Broj zamaha krilima varira od 6 do 10 u sekundi u krupnih dnevnih leptira, oko 250 u sekundi u pčela, a u komaraca oko 1000 u sekundi. Trajanje života odrasla kukca vrlo je različito: vodencvijet živi nekoliko sati, leptiri nekoliko mjeseci, pčelinja matica 5 godina, a neki mravi i do 15 godina.[1]
Razmnožavanje i razvoj [uredi]



Vrsta Simosyrphus grandicornis pari se u letu.
Ukratko: jaje - ličinka - kukuljica - odrasli kukac
Odrasli spolno zreli kukac ima dovršen razvoj, pa ga se naziva i savršenim kukcom. Takav oblik nastaje dugotrajnim rastom, sazrijevanjem i tjelesnim preoblikovanjem niza mlađih razvojnih oblika, pa život kukca svakako traje dulje od nekoliko dana, ili tjedana. Razvoj započinje oplodnjom u jaju, u kojem se razvija zametak (embrij). To je tzv. zametni (embrionalni) razvoj. Stariji zametak sazrijeva i postaje ličinka, koja je spremna za život izvan jajeta. Nakon probijanja i izlaska iz jajeta, ličinke se moraju hraniti i rasti. Zato su živahne i najčešće pokretljive, da mogu dohvatiti hranu. Prilikom rasta, moraju odbacivati dijelove tijela koji ne rastu, tj. presvlače se. Presvlačenje se događa kod ličinaka svih vrsta kukaca. Osim što rastu dok su mladi, događa im se i promjena oblika preobrazba (metamorfoza).
Ima više tipova razvoja kukaca, a najlakše je razlikovati dva osnovna tipa preobrazbe:
1. nepotpuna preobrazba
Ličinke onih vrsta kojima mladi već nakon izlaska iz jaja nalikuju odraslima (skakavci, bogomoljke, žohari, stjenice, uholaže itd.) ne moraju se potpuno promijeniti da bi izgledali kao odrasli. Nakon svakog presvlačenja ličinke postaju sve veće i sve sličnije odraslima, te u zadnjem presvlačenju zadobiju i krila i spolne organe.
2. potpuna preobrazba
Kod drugog tipa razvoja, ličinke, iako se presvlače i rastu, nisu nimalo slične odraslima, nego stalno imaju crvolik izgled. Takva je većina kukaca (ose, pčele, mravi, muhe, leptiri, kornjaši, itd.). Leptirove ličinke, iako su crvolike, imaju poseban naziv gusjenice. Da bi mladi crvoliki kukci postali odrasli komarci, kornjaši itd., moraju se potpuno i naglo promijeniti. Zadnjim presvlačenjem ličinke, umjesto još veće crvolike ličinke, ispod stare kože izviruje novi i sasvim drukčiji oblik - kukuljica. Život u obliku kukuljice prividno je miran, kukuljica se ne pomiče i ne hrani ali se u unutrašnjosti životinje događaju se velike preinake organa. Kad je kukuljica sazrela, puca njena vanjska površina, a iz unutrašnjosti izlazi odrasli kukac. Krila mu olakšavaju kretanje, radi pronalaska novih prostora i partnera za produljenje vrste. Počinje životna faza odraslog kukca.
Evolucija [uredi]



Fosil kornjaša Phyllobius calcaratus
Kukci su se razvili od kolutićavaca (Annelida). Najstariji oblici nalaze se u slojevima srednjega devona.
Glasanje kukaca [uredi]




Zrikanje skakavca
Kukci se najčešće glasaju s pomoću organa za stridulaciju. On se sastoji od dva tvrda, nazubljena, hitinska dijela tijela (zrikala) koja se brzim pokretima međusobno taru. Zrikanje ili čegrtanje ovisi o strukturi zupčanika, brzini prevlačenja i o pridodanim rezonatorima. Položaj zrikala može biti na prednjim krilima, na nogama, prsima ili zatku. Zrikalo često imaju samo mužjaci koji se na taj način javljaju ženkama.
Sistematika [uredi]


Wikivrste imaju podatke o: Insecta
beskrilci (Apterygota)
podrazred unutarčeljusnici (Entotropha)
red skokuni (Collembola))
red (Diplura)
red (Protura)
podrazred izvančeljusnici (Ectotropha)
red paračeljusnici (Archeognatha)
red četinaši (Zygentoma)
krilaši (Pterygota)
infrarazred prakrilaši (Palaeoptera)
nadred vodencvjetokrilaši (Ephemeroptera)
red vodencvjetovi (Ephemeroidea)
nadred vretencokrilaši (Odonaptera)
red vretenca, vilini konjici (Odonata)
podred sličnokrilci (Zygoptera)
podred nejednakokrilci (Anisoptera)
infrarazred novokrilaši (Neoptera)
nadred žoharokrilaši (Blattopteroida Blattopterimorphia)
red žoharaši (Dictyoptera)
red bogomoljke (Mantodea)
red termiti, istokrilci (Isoptera)
red kosoglavci (Zoraptera)
nadred ravnokrilaši (Orthopteroida)
red obalčari (Plecoptera)
red šturkožohari (Notoptera)
red nakaznici (Cheleutoptera)
red ravnokrilci (Orthoptera)
podred Ensifera
podred šaške (prije skakavci) (Caelifera)
red prelonošci (Embioptera)
nadred kožokrilaši (Dermapteroida)
red uholaže (Dermaptera)
nadred tvrdokrilaši (Coleopteroida)
red kornjaši (Coleoptera)
podred raznojedi (Polyphaga)
podred grabežljivci (Adephaga)
nadred mrežokrilaši (Neuropteroida)
red muljari (Megaloptera)
red dugovratke (Raphidioptera)
red plošnokrilci, mrežokrilci (Planipennia)
nadred širomkrilaši (Mecopteroida)
red kljunarice (Mecoptera)
red tulari (Trichoptera)
red leptiri (Lepidoptera)
red dvokrilci (Diptera)
nadred buhokrilaši (Siphonapteroda)
red buhe (Siphonaptera)
nadred opnokrilaši (Hymenopteroida)
red opnokrilci (Hymenoptera)
red lepezari (Strepsiptera)
nadred grizlicokrilaši (Psocoida)
red grizlice (Psocoptera)
red životinjske uši (Phthiraptera)
podred tekuti (Mallophaga)
podred prave uši (Anoplura)
nadred resokrilaši (Thysanopteroida)
red resokrilci (Thysanoptera)
nadred polukrilaši (Hemipteroida)
red polukrilci (Hemiptera)
podred stjenice (Heteropteroidacea)
podred cvrčci (Auchenorrhyncha)
podred (Sternorrhyncha)[2]
Izvori [uredi]

Boxing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other meanings of these words, see Boxing (disambiguation), Boxer (disambiguation), Box (disambiguation), or Prizefighter (disambiguation).

This article includes a list of references or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (November 2009)

This article is written like a personal reflection or essay and may require cleanup. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (April 2010)

This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity or Wikibooks. (April 2010)
Boxing

Ricardo Dominguez (left) is throwing an uppercut on Rafael Ortiz (right).
Also known as Pugilism, English boxing, Western Boxing
Focus Striking (Punching)
Country of origin Greece (Ancient Boxing)
United Kingdom (Modern Boxing)
Creator Various fighters
Parenthood Unknown
Olympic sport Since 688 B.C.
Boxing is a combat sport and martial art in which two people fight using their fists. Boxing is typically supervised by a referee engaged in during a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds, and boxers generally of similar weight. There are three ways to win; if the opponent is knocked out and unable to get up before the referee counts to ten seconds (a Knockout, or KO) or if the opponent is deemed too injured to continue (a Technical Knockout, or TKO). If there is no stoppage of the fight before an agreed number of rounds, a winner is determined either by the referee's decision or by judges' scorecards.
Contents [hide]
1 Early history
1.1 Ancient Greek boxing
1.2 Ancient Roman boxing
2 Modern boxing
2.1 Broughton's rules (1743)
2.2 London Prize Ring rules (1838)
2.3 Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)
3 Rules
4 Professional vs. amateur boxing
4.1 Amateur boxing
4.2 Professional boxing
5 Clothing
5.1 Shorts
5.2 Tank tops
5.3 Protective equipment
5.4 Footwear
6 Boxing style terminology
6.1 Boxer/Out-fighter
6.2 Boxer-puncher
6.3 Brawler/slugger
6.4 Swarmers/in-fighter
6.5 Counter puncher
6.6 Style matchups
7 Equipment
8 Technique
8.1 Stance
8.2 Punches
8.3 Defense
8.4 Less common strategies
9 The corner
10 Medical concerns
11 Boxing Hall of Fame
12 Governing and sanctioning bodies
13 See also
14 Notes
15 References
16 External links
[edit]Early history



Minoan youths boxing, Akrotiri (Santorini) fresco. Earliest documented use of 'gloves'.
Fist fighting depicted in Sumerian relief carvings from the 3rd millennium BC, while an ancient Egyptian relief from the 2nd millennium BC depicts both fist-fighters and spectators.[1] Both depictions show bare-fisted contests.[1] In 1927 Dr. E. A. Speiser, an archaeologist, discovered a Mesopotamian stone tablet in Baghdad, Iraq depicting two men getting ready for a prize fight. The tablet is believed to be 7,000 years old.[2] The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete (c. 1500–900 BC), and on Sardinia, if we consider the boxing statues of Prama mountains (c. 2000–1000 BC).[1]
[edit]Ancient Greek boxing


Boxer of Quirinal resting after contest (Bronze sculpture, 3rd century BC)


Detail of leather straps


The right boxer signals giving up by raising his finger high (ca. 500 BC)
Main article: Ancient Greek Boxing
Homer's Iliad (ca. 675 BC) contains the first detailed account of a boxing fight (Book XXIII).[3] According to the Iliad, Mycenaean warriors included boxing among their competitions honoring the fallen with great cerominies (ca. 1200 BC), though it is possible that the Homeric epics reflect later culture. Another legend holds that the heroic ruler Theseus, said to have lived around the 9th century BC, invented a form of boxing in which two men sat face to face and beat each other with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the boxers began to fight while standing and wearing gloves (with spikes) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, although otherwise they were completely naked.
Boxing was first accepted as an Olympic sport in 688 BC, being called Pygme or Pygmachia. Participants trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Fighters wore leather straps (called himantes) over their hands, wrists, and sometimes breast, to protect them from injury. The straps left their fingers free. Legend had it that the Spartans were the first to box as a way to prepare for sword and shield fighting.
[edit]Ancient Roman boxing
In ancient Rome, there were two forms of boxing both coming from Etruscan boxing. The athletic form of boxing remained popular throughout the Roman world. The other form of boxing was gladiatorial. Fighters were usually criminals and slaves who hoped to become champions and gain their freedom; however, free men, women, and even aristocrats also fought. Gladiators wore lead "cestae" over their knuckles and heavy leather straps on their forearms to protect against blows. The deeply scarred and cauliflower eared figure of the Boxer of Quirinal show what a brutal sport it could be (matches often ending in the death or maiming of an opponent).
Eventually, fist fighting became so popular that even emperors started fighting, and the practice was promoted by Caesar Neronis. A fight between the agile Dares and the towering Entellus is described at length in the Roman national epic Aeneid (1st century BC).[4]
In 393 A.D., the Olympics were banned by the Christian emperor Theodosius, and in 500 A.D., boxing was banned altogether by Emperor Theodoric the Great as boxing being an insult to God because it disfigures the face, the image of God. However, this edict had little effect outside the major cities of the Eastern Empire.[5] By this time, western Europe was no longer part of the Roman Empire. Boxing remained popular in Europe throughout the Middle Ages and beyond. Wrestling, fencing and racing (both chariot and foot) were never banned by the late Romans, as they did not cause disfigurement.

[edit]Modern boxing

[edit]Broughton's rules (1743)


A straight right demonstrated in Edmund Price's The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867
Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Fistfight. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 18th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719.[6] This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used. It should be noted, that this earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fistfighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling.
Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. The first boxing rules, called the Broughton's rules, were introduced by heavyweight champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred.[7] Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton also invented and encouraged the use of "mufflers", a form of padded gloves, which were used in training and exhibitions. The first paper on boxing was published in the late 18th century by successful Birmingham boxer 'William Futrell' who remained undefeated until his one hour and seventeen minute fight at Smitham Bottom, Croydon, on July 9, 1788 against a much younger "Gentleman" John Jackson which was attended by the Prince of Wales.


Tom Molineaux vs Tom Cribb in a re-match for the heavyweight championship of England, 1811
These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers: They permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. However, this was considered "unmanly"[8] and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the Boxers.[9] Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, a certain amount of restraint was required when striking the head.
[edit]London Prize Ring rules (1838)
Main article: London Prize Ring rules
In 1838, the London Prize Ring rules were codified. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the following:[10]
Fights occurred in a 24 feet (7.3 m)-square ring surrounded by ropes.
If a fighter was knocked down, he had to rise within 30 seconds under his own power to be allowed to continue.
Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared fouls.
Through the late nineteenth century, boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police. Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics.
[edit]Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)
In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them.



The June 1894 Leonard–Cushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetograph was made available to exhibitors for $22.50.[11] Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown.
There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring. Rounds were three minutes long with one minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down and wrestling was banned.
The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists.[12] The gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face.
The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.
The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans.[13]
Throughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy, aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions from John L. Sullivan to Jack Dempsey. Shortly after this era, boxing commissions and other sanctioning bodies were established to regulate the sport and establish universally recognized champions.
Further information: Professional boxing
[edit]Rules

The Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.
A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 12 rounds (formerly 15). A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls. Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches that connect, defense, knockdowns, and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one (Or both) fighters believe they have been "robbed" or unfairly denied a victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more "seconds" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signaled end of each round.
A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to "go the distance". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knockout; such bouts are said to have ended "inside the distance". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue. Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked out" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A "technical knockout" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-knockdown rule", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that he feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if he is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown.
In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, spitting or wrestling. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the neck or head (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between). If a "clinch" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue.
Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a "no contest" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed.
[edit]Professional vs. amateur boxing

Throughout the 17th through 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts. Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career.
[edit]Amateur boxing
Main article: Amateur boxing


Headgear is mandatory in modern amateur boxing

Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games, and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds.
Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip across the knuckle. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows (below the belt) is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced.[14] Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH).
[edit]Professional boxing
Main article: Professional boxing
Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two-[15] and three-round professional bouts,[16] especially in Australia. Through the early twentieth century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the twentieth century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim reduced the limit to twelve.
Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more punishment before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare chested.[17]
[edit]Clothing

This section requires expansion.
All boxers, regardless of their weight class, have certain kinds of clothing that are essential for bouts. Professional boxers wear different clothes from amateur ones but there is a basic idea or sense in them. All boxers in sanctioned fights are required to have handwraps, gloves, groin protectors, mouth guards and soft soled shoes.
[edit]Shorts
In amateur boxing, each boxer wears shorts approved by the sanctioning body in the color of their corner. In professional boxing, the color and design of the shorts is left up to each fighter and is not regulated. Many types of shorts are striped with bright colours. Many boxers have their name or nickname embroidered on the waistband of the shorts, along with sponsor logos and even the sanctioning bodies which have awarded them belts. Many boxers, such as Prince Naseem Hamed, have very elaborate shorts, while others such as Mike Tyson prefer plain ones. Shorts in the modern era are much looser fitting than those of previous generations for improved movement, comfort and style.
[edit]Tank tops
Amateur boxers wear tank top shirts, as do female professional boxers. Some female boxers choose to wear sports bras rather than tank tops. Upper body cover varies from boxer to boxer due to preference. Professional male boxers always compete with upper body clothing off.
[edit]Protective equipment
Amateur boxers are required to have headgear and a sleeveless shirt in the color of their corner, while professionals fight bare-chested and without headgear. Female boxers in amateur ranks are allowed a short sleeved shirt, where as professionals wear a sleeveless shirt. All female boxers are allowed a chest protector. All boxers are required a mouthpiece, the construction of which is up to the sanctioning body and the fighters. All boxers in sanctioned bouts are required to have a foul protector, which protects the groin and lower abdomen. Female foul protectors have less padding in the groin, but are still required in sanctioned bouts. All boxers also wear gloves, ranging in weight from 8-16oz in amateur bouts and 6-12oz in professional bouts. Amateurs are bound by an approved glove, whereas professional boxers have only a minimum weight of glove, the exact weight and even brand can be determined in the negotiations prior to the fight. Gloves are subject to inspection both by the representatives of the sanctioning body and the opposing fighter's corner prior to a fight. They are then taped on the laces to prevent them from coming loose, and are usually signed by the representative of the sanctioning body to assure no tampering has taken place. Boxers are also required to have handwraps. USA Boxing allows re-usable cotton handwraps with a hook and loop closure, whereas most professional fights require adhesive, one time use wraps. Wraps are also subject to inspection, a notable example being the fight between Shane Mosley and Antonio Margarito, where a plaster like substance was found in the wraps of Margarito, resulting in his suspension for "at least a year." In modern-day professional boxing, it is mandatory for males to wear a waistband wrapped around their upper thighs and the lower waist. This waistband is usually black or red and is made of rubber (sometimes leather) in order to cushion the body from deadly shots towards the male's most vulnerable body part -- the penis. However, it is still possible to suffer from a blow to the penis despite having the waistband; depending on the strength of the punch. The waistband gets bent and twisted during fights and often sticks out of the boxer's shorts which causes the boxer's belly to be slightly squeezed. Before the 1980s, the waistband was much smaller and therefore; allows more damage onto the boxer's pelvis.
[edit]Footwear
All boxers are required to have soft soled shoes, which minimizes the damage from accidental or intentional stepping on feet. The construction of the shoe is up to the fighter, with many inside fighters preferring textured rubber soles for increased traction, and many outside fighters preferring smooth soles for decreased friction and easier movement.
[edit]Boxing style terminology

In boxing, no two fighters' styles are identical. A boxer's style evolves as he or she applies what they learn in practice, and performs in such a way as to suit him or herself. Nonetheless, many terms are used which broadly describe a boxer's style[citation needed]. Note that a boxer is not necessarily limited to being described by one of these terms. A fighter may be accomplished at both in-fighting and out-fighting, a good example of this being Manny Pacquiao and Bernard Hopkins, and fighters may have a unique style which does not easily fit into any category, such as Naseem Hamed.
[edit]Boxer/Out-fighter


Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali
A classic "boxer" or stylist (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler[citation needed]. Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.
Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Gene Tunney,[18] Ezzard Charles,[19] Willie Pep,[20] Meldrick Taylor, Larry Holmes, Roy Jones Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Oscar de la Hoya, and Joe Calzaghe.
[edit]Boxer-puncher
A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter), but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style.
Notable punchers include Manny Pacquiao, Sam Langford,[21] Henry Armstrong,[22] Joe Louis,[23] Sugar Ray Robinson,[24] Tony Zale, Archie Moore, Carlos Monzón[25] Alexis Argüello, Erik Morales, Lennox Lewis, Wladimir Klitschko, Terry Norris and Thomas Hearns.
[edit]Brawler/slugger
A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favour of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment. A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing).
Notable brawlers include David Tua, Ricky Hatton, Stanley Ketchel,[26] Max Baer,[27] Jake Lamotta, Roberto Durán, Rocky Graziano,[28] Sonny Liston[29] and George Foreman, Juan Urango.
[edit]Swarmers/in-fighter
In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called "pressure fighters") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. A successful in-fighter often needs a good "chin" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting. The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters utilize their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts where they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Some in-fighters have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving.
Notable in-fighters include Mike Tyson, Harry Greb,[30] Jack Dempsey,[31] Rocky Marciano,[32] Joe Frazier, Jake LaMotta, and Julio César Chávez.
[edit]Counter puncher
Counter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch. Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and never telegraphing a punch for the counter puncher to generate a good offense from. To be successful using this style they must have good reflexes, intelligence, punch accuracy, and good hand speed.
Notable counter punchers include Floyd Mayweather, Jr., Jerry Quarry, Ricardo Lopez, Bernard Hopkins, Vitali Klitschko, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Evander Holyfield, Juan Manuel Márquez, and Pernell Whitaker.
[edit]Style matchups
There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a puncher, and a puncher has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock-paper-scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that "styles make fights."
Brawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier.


Taylor vs Chávez 1: an example of a style matchup
Although in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime.
The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers.
An example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Chavez versus Taylor). The match was nicknamed "Thunder Meets Lightning" as an allusion to tremendous punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor. Chávez was the epitome of the "Mexican" style of boxing. He relentlessly stalked and closed in on the other fighter, ignoring whatever punishment he took for the chance to dish out his own at close range, particularly in the form of a crunching body attack that would either wear down his opponents until they collapsed in pain and exhaustion, or became too tired to defend as Chávez shifted his attack to the head and went for a knockout. During the fight, Taylor's brilliant hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points, but in the end, Chavez's punishment wore down Taylor and knocked him down with a tremendous right hand in the last round.
[edit]Equipment

Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without hand/wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. A mouth guard is important to protect the teeth and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout.
Boxers practice their skills on two basic types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped "speed bag" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical "heavy bag" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also utilize more general use training equipment to build strength, speed, and agility. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.
[edit]Technique

[edit]Stance
The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson.

Upright stance


Semi-crouch


Full crouch

In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step behind the lead foot. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist. Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly offcenter. Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. The stance described is considered the "textbook" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once its been mastered as a base. Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents.
Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand.
North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots.
Modern boxers can sometimes be seen tapping their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). Boxers are taught to push off with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.
[edit]Punches
There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, straight right/left hand, hook and uppercut. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer.

Jab


Cross - in counter-punch with a looping


hook


Uppercut


Short straight-punch – in short range and close range


Cross-counter (counter punch)


Half uppercut - a combination of a wide Uppercut/straight punch


Half hook - a combination of a wide Hook/straight punch

Jab – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is recognised as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or 'wear down' their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko.


Ukrainian IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight champion Vladimir Klitschko.
Cross – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross can also follow a jab, creating the classic "one-two" combination. The cross is also called a "straight" or "right", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab.
Hook – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand.Notable left hookers include:Joe Frazier and Mike Tyson
Uppercut – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift the opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out.
These different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or "combos". The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the "one-two combo". This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully.
A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a "roundhouse", "haymaker", or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard. Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in.
Another unconventional punch is the rarely used "bolo punch", in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm.
[edit]Defense
There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below.

Slipping


Bobbing


Blocking (with the arms)


Cover-Up (with the gloves)


Clinching


Footwork


Pulling away

Slip – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson.
Sway or fade – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called "rolling with the punch" or " Riding The Punch".
Duck or break – To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head glances or misses entirely.
Bob and weave – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving.
Parry/block – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A "palm" or "cuff" is a block which intentionally takes the incoming punch on that portion of the defender's glove.
The cover-Up – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below.
The clinch – Clinching is a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it. It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing.
[edit]Guards
There are several defensive positions (guards or styles) used in boxing. Within each style, there is considerable variation among fighters, as some fighters may have their guard higher for more head protection while others have their guard lower to provide better protection against body punches. Many fighters vary their defensive style throughout a bout in order to adapt to the situation of the moment, choosing the position best suited to protect them.
Boxers who use an upright stance protect their chin with the rear hand in either the low or mixed guard styles depicted below. Crouch fighters tend to use the "peek-a-boo" style, discussed below.

Low guard


Mixed guard


Peek-a-boo

Peek-a-boo – Sometimes known as the "earmuffs", the hands are placed next to each other in front of the face (fighters tend to vary the exact positioning) and elbows are brought in tight to the body (this position can be achieved by bringing the elbows as close together while not straining yourself to do so). This defensive style is what a boxer is taught to do when he begins to box, after he gains experience he can decide to change or vary the guard. This style is middle-of-the-road style in terms of counterpunching and damage reduction. A boxer can counter punch from this stance, but it is difficult. However, there have been boxers who can do this very well. This defense covers up a fighter well, but there are holes. Hooks do damage by going around the hands and by hitting just behind the elbows. Winky Wright uses this style very well from a damage reduction stand point. Another famous example is Mike Tyson, who in his early career used the Peek-a-Boo with great success.
Cross-armed – The forearms are placed on top of each other horizontally in front of the face with the glove of one arm being on the top of the elbow of the other arm. This style is greatly varied when the back hand rises vertically. This style is the most effective for reducing head damage. The only head punch that a fighter is susceptible to is a jab to the top of the head. The body is open, but most fighters who use this style bend and lean to protect the body, but while upright and unaltered the body is there to be hit. This position is very difficult to counterpunch from, but virtually eliminates all head damage.
Philly Shell, hitman or crab – The lead arm is placed across the torso usually somewhere in between the belly button and chest and the lead hand rests on the opposite side of the fighter's torso. The back hand is placed on the side of the face. The lead shoulder is brought in tight against the side of the face. This style is used by fighters who like to counterpunch. To execute this guard a fighter must be very athletic and experienced. This style is so effective for counterpunching because it allows fighters to slip punches by rotating and dipping their upper body and causing blows to glance off the fighter. After the punch glances off, the fighter's back hand is in perfect position to hit his out-of-positioned opponent. The shoulder lean is used in this stance. To execute the shoulder lean a fighter rotates and ducks when his opponent's punch is coming towards him and then rotates back towards his opponent while his opponent is bringing his hand back. The fighter will throw a punch with his back hand as he is rotating towards his undefended opponent. The weakness to this style is that when a fighter is stationary and not rotating he is open to be hit, so a fighter must be athletic and well conditioned to effectively execute this style. To beat this style fighters like to jab their opponent's shoulder causing the shoulder and arm to be in pain and to demobilize that arm.
Boxers generally attempt to land high, fast combinations and then quickly shift position to avoid a possible response by their opponent. Strategically, the ring's centre is generally the desired position since a boxer is able to conserve movement by forcing the opponent to circle around them. When in the centre, the boxer is also less likely to be knocked backwards against the ropes surrounding the ring and cornered. Depending on the boxer's style, the centre is the desired location as cornering opponents is always a good strategy. Most fighters, though, will not move around the boxer in the center because doing so makes them vulnerable to shots thrown at good angles. Movement is the most important tool in the ring and allows the fighter to avoid punches that were not telegraphed. If a boxer is standing still, his opponent has a better chance of hitting him. A fighter anticipating a shot while stationary is less likely to be able to evade the shot than a fighter already in motion.
[edit]Less common strategies
The "rope-a-dope" strategy : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 "Rumble in the Jungle" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches. The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as they would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target. Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy whilst conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Recently, however, seven-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009. Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown.
Bolo punch : Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilan. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch.

Bolo punch


Overhand (overcut)

Overhand right : The overhand right is a punch not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the right cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand right has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over-the-shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon. The overhand right has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking.
Check hook : A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport.
Floyd Mayweather Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down. Hatton managed to get himself to his feet after the knockdown but was clearly dazed and it was only a matter of moments before Mayweather landed a flurry of punches which sent Hatton crashing to the canvas, giving Mayweather a TKO victory in the 10th round and handing Hatton his first ever defeat.
[edit]The corner

In boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds and where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts and blood. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts that threaten the boxer's eyes.
In addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase "to throw in the towel", meaning to give up, derives from this practice).[33] This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal.
[edit]Medical concerns

Knocking a person unconscious or even causing concussion may cause permanent brain damage.[34] There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person. Since 1980, more than 200 amateur and professional boxers and Toughman fighters have died as the result of ring or training injuries.[35] Thus, in 1983, the Journal of the American Medical Association called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an "obscenity" that "should not be sanctioned by any civilized society."[36] Since then, the British,[37] Canadian[38] and Australian[39] Medical Associations also have called for bans on boxing.
Supporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: "It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing."[40] In 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage,[41] and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage.[42]
In 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing.[43][44]
Professional boxing is forbidden in Norway, Iceland, Cuba, Iran and North Korea. It was banned in Sweden until recently[when?] when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed.[citation needed]
[edit]Boxing Hall of Fame

The sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the World Boxing Hall of Fame (WBHF), with the IBHOF being the more widely recognized boxing hall of fame.
The WBHF was founded by Everett L. Sanders in 1980. Since its inception the WBHOF has never had a permanent location or museum, which has allowed the more recent IBHOF to garner more publicity and prestige. Among the notable names in the WBHF are Ricardo "Finito" Lopez, Gabriel "Flash" Elorde, Michael Carbajal, Khaosai Galaxy, Henry Armstrong, Jack Johnson, Roberto Durán, George Foreman, Ceferino Garcia,and Salvador Sanchez. Boxing's International Hall of Fame was inspired by a tribute an American town held for two local heroes in 1982. The town, Canastota, New York, (which is about 15 miles (24 km) east of Syracuse, via the New York State Thruway), honored former world welterweight/middleweight champion Carmen Basilio and his nephew, former world welterweight champion Billy Backus. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute which inspired the idea of creating an official, annual hall of fame for notable boxers.
The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures include Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel "Flash" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event.
The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself.
[edit]Governing and sanctioning bodies



Champions since 1920 of heavyweight boxing of 5 most important Associations
Governing Body Website
British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC) http://www.bbbofc.com/
Nevada State Athletic Commission http://boxing.nv.gov/
American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians (AAPRP) http://www.aaprp.org/
European Boxing Union http://www.boxebu.com/
Sanctioning Body Website
World Boxing Association (W.B.A.) http://www.wbaonline.com/
World Boxing Council (W.B.C.) http://www.wbcboxing.com/
International Boxing Federation (I.B.F.) http://www.ibf-usba-boxing.com/
World Boxing Organization (W.B.O.) http://www.wbo-int.com/
World Professional Boxing Federation (W.P.B.F.) http://www.wpbf-usbc.org/
[edit]See also

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Boxing
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Boxing
Automated Boxing Scoring System
Boxing at the Summer Olympics
Boxing training
Boxing weights
Helmet boxing
List of current world boxing champions
List of female boxers
List of Triple Champions of Boxing
NCAA Boxing Championship
Purse bid
White Collar Boxing
Women's boxing
U.S. intercollegiate boxing champions
[edit]Notes

^ a b c Encyclopaedia Britannica entry for Boxing
^ Boxing Ancient History & Cartoon Fun from Brownielocks
^ Homer, Iliad, 23.655-696
^ Virgil, Aeneid, 5.421
^ BBC. The origins of Boxing, BBC History
^ James B. Roberts and Alexander G. Skutt (1999). James Figg, IBOHF
^ John Rennie (2006) East London Prize Ring Rules 1743
^ Anonymous ("A Celebrated Pugilist"), The Art and Practice of Boxing, 1825
^ Daniel Mendoza, The Modern Art of Boxing, 1790
^ Clay Moyle and Arly Allen (2006), 1838 Prize Rules
^ Leonard–Cushing fight Part of the Library of Congress Inventing Entertainment educational website. Retrieved 12/14/06.
^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2006). Queensbury Rules, Britannica
^ Tracy Callis (2006). James Corbett, Cyberboxingzone.com
^ Andrew Eisele (2005). Olympic Boxing Rules, About.com
^ BoxRec Boxing Records
^ BoxRec Boxing Records
^ Bert Randolph Sugar (2001). "Boxing", World Book Online Americas Edition Owingsmillsboxingclub.com
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.162
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.254
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.384
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.120
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.204
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.337
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.403
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.353,
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.114,115
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.50
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.293
^ James Roberts and Alexander SkuttThe Boxing Register, 1999, "Doug Grant",2008 p.330
^ James Roberts, Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.98, 99
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.75
^ James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.339, 340
^ Phrases.org
^ Boxing Brain Damage, BBC News
^ Svinth, Joseph R. "Death Under the Spotlight" Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences, Accessed November 25, 2007
^ Lundberg, George D. "Boxing should be banned in civilized countries." Journal of the American Medical Association. 1983, pp. 249-250.
^ BMA.org.uk
^ CMA.ca
^ CMA.ca
^ News on Boxing Ban BBC Online
^ "Amateur boxers suffer brain damage too". New Scientist (2602): 4. 08 May 2007.
^ "Does Amateur Boxing Cause Brain Damage?". American Academy of Neurology. May 2, 2007.
^ American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians
^ Hauser, Thomas. "Medical Issues and the AAPRP" SecondsOut.com, Accessed November 25, 2007
[edit]References

Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni (July/August 2005). Illinois Alumni, 18(1), 47.
Beating the heck outta their instruments
Death Under the Spotlight: The Manuel Velazquez Boxing Fatality Collection
Fleischer, Nat, Sam Andre, Nigel Collins, Dan Rafael (2002). An Illustrated History of Boxing. Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2201-1
Fox, James A. (2001). Boxing. Stewart, Tabori and Chang. ISBN 1-58479-133-0
Godfrey, John "Boxing" from Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense, 1747
Gunn M, Ormerod D. The legality of boxing. Legal Studies. 1995;15:181.
Halbert, Christy (2003). The Ultimate Boxer: Understanding the Sport and Skills of Boxing. Impact Seminars, Inc. ISBN 0-9630968-5-0
Hatmaker, Mark (2004). Boxing Mastery: Advanced Technique, Tactics, and Strategies from the Sweet Science. Tracks Publishing. ISBN 1-884654-21-5
McIlvanney, Hugh (2001). The Hardest Game: McIlvanney on Boxing. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-658-02154-0
Myler, Patrick (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-86105-258-8.
Price, Edmund The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867
Robert Anasi (2003). The Gloves: A Boxing Chronicle. North Point Press. ISBN 0-86547-652-7
Schulberg, Budd (2007). Ringside: A Treasury of Boxing Reportage. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-749-X
Silverman, Jeff (2004). The Greatest Boxing Stories Ever Told: Thirty-Six Incredible Tales from the Ring. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-479-5
Scully, John Learn to Box with the Iceman
U.S. Amateur Boxing Inc. (1994). Coaching Olympic Style Boxing. Cooper Pub Group. 1-884-12525-5
A Pictoral History Of Boxing, Sam Andre and Nat Fleischer, Hamlyn, 1988, ISBN 0-600-50288-0

Moderni karate se obično dijeli na tri dijela:
Kihon
Kate
Kumite (borba)
Kod osnovne tehnike uče se pojedinačni udarci, blokovi, stavovi itd. Kate su poseban skup točno određenih pokreta (udaraca, stavova i blokova) koji se izvode, a pokazuju borbu sa zamišljenim protivnikom (jednim ili više). Borba može biti slobodna ili dogovorena (dogovori se koji će se izvesti udarac, i kojim blokom se blokira taj udarac). U vježbanju se mogu primjenjivati određena oprema kao naprimjer makiwara, vreća za udaranje, fokuseri, utezi itd.iako karate doslovno označava praznu ruku neki stilovi uče i borbu oružjem (kobudo)kao što su kama, nunčake,bo, itd.
Kokoro [uredi]
Kokoro je pojam koji se provlači kroz mnoge borilačke vještine, ali nema jednostavno značenje. U kontekstu, ono znači nešto kao srce, osobnost ili pristup. Osobnost je središnji smisao karatea, i zajedno sa do prirodom modernog karatea, veliki naglasak daje poboljšanju osobe. Uobičajeno je spomenuti da vještina karatea služi za samoobranu, a ne nanošenju povreda protivniku u primjeni vještine.
Neki popularni ponavljani navodi koji sadržavaju ovaj pojam uključuju:
Konačni cilj Karatea ne leži u pobjedi ili porazu, nego u savršenstvu osobnosti sudionika - Gichin Funakoshi
Put ne znači put borbe. To je put kojim vi putujete da saznate svoj unutarnji mir i harmoniju. Na vama je da tražite i nađete. - Hironori Othsuka
Poštovanje je drugi važan dio karatea;ono govori o proćišćenju sebe i osnaživanju osobnosti. Duh osu-a je potjerati sebe do krajnjih granica sposobnosti, izdržati pod pritiskom. Ovo je objašnjenje zašto se kaže da Karate uvijek počinje i završava sa rei-em.
Tradicionalne ideje [uredi]
Tri napada
Sen sen no sen - napasti prvi
Go no sen - kontra na napad (presretanje)
Tai no sen - napasti istodobno
Kumite prioriteti
Ichi gan - prvo, oči (svjesnost)
Ni soku - drugo, rad nogu (sposobnost i osnova)
San tan - treće, duh (želja za borbom)
Shi riki - četvrto, snaga (uvježbanost tijela)
Tri duha
Fukutsu no seishin - nikad se ne predaj
Kanto no seishin - dobar borbeni duh
Hissho no seishin - pobjednički duh
Četiri boljke
Strah
Iznenađenje
Dvojba
Zbunjenost
Tri svijesti
Mushin - besvjesnost (nema potrebe za razmišljanjem)
Fudoshin - nepokretan um (bez utjecaja izvana)
Heijushin - uobičajeni um (uvijek spreman)
Druge ideje
Seme - pritisak na protivnika
Zanshin - svjesnost sebe i okoline
Ki - opća životna energija
Do - put
Embusen - položaj protivnika
Seichusen - središnja linija protivnika ili sebe
Povijest karatea [uredi]

Smatra se da počeci borilačkih vještina počinju s indijskim kraljevićem Bodhidharmom koji je šireći budizam došao iz Indije u Kinu, točnije u hram koji se zvao Shaolin i tamo meditirao. Vidjevši kako su budistički svećenici lošeg zdravlja smislio je određene vježbe za očuvanje zdravlja i taj sustav nazvao «18 načina lo-hama». Među tim vježbama su bile vježbe meditacije koje je nazvao «devetogodišnje gledanje zida» i vježbe samoobrane. Nakon što je hram Shaolin uništen svećenici koji su preživjeli su se raširili po Kini i tamo podučavali borilačke vještine. Tako su nastali razni stilovi. U to vrijeme na Okinawi kojom je vladao shogun Hanoshi iz dinastije Sho bilo je zabranjeno svako posjedovanje oružja osim osoba u neposrednoj vladarevoj službi. Pošto je Shangai dva puta bliži od Nare i Kyota, tadašnjih prijestolnica Japana, ljudi s Okinawe su odlazili u Kinu i tamo trenirali borilačke vještine. Povratkom na Okinawu prenosili su svoje znanje na druge i tako je nastala vještina borbe koja se zvala Te što na japansko znači ruka. Vremenom se formiraju Te iz Nahe (Naha-te), Te iz Shurija (Shuri-te) i manje popularan Te iz Tomare(Tomari-te).
Naha-te: defanzivnog je karaktera, kružnih kretnji s tehnikama hvatova i bacanja i podjeća na kineske stilove borilačkih vještina.
Shuri-te: Ofenzivnog je karaktera, pravocrtnih je pokreta i direktnih tehnika, uključivao je borenje s nunchakom (mlat za žito), tonfa (ručica za okretanje mlinskog kamena) i kama (vrsta srpa).
Tomari-te: Uzima elemente oba prijašnja stila borenja.
Karate biva otkriven kada je jedan nepoznati vojni liječnik primjetio da su vojnici s Okinawe izuzetno fizički spremni, i kada se raspitao saznao je da oni treniraju borilačku vještinu zvanu Te. To se pročulo i do japanskog cara i on je pozvao okinavljanske majstore da je javno prikažu. Za demonstraciju je određen okinavljanin Gichin Funakoshi. On je cijeli svoj život posvetio popularizaciji karate vještine i prozvan je ocem modernog karatea. 1930. godine on je promjenio naziv vještene iz Te u Karate što na japanskom znači prazna ruka ili borba bez oružja. Nakon toga karate se proširio po čitavom svijetu.

Najrašireniji stilovi karatea su:
Shotokan
Uechi ryu
Shito ryu
Wado ryu
Goju ryu
Kyokushin
Fudokan
Povijest karatea u Europi [uredi]

Početkom šezdesetih godina prošlog stoljeća karate vještina se vježbala u Europi u okviru judo klubova. Prve karate–ke su podučavali japanski instruktori koji su u Europi boravili pod pokroviteljstvom Japanske karate federacije (Japan Karate Association).
U Francuskoj je 1961. godine osnovan prvi europski nacionalni savez (French Karate) koji je bio član francuske judo federacije (Judo Federation) a prvi predsjednik je bio Jacques Delcourt.
Prvo mađunarodno natjecanje održano je 1963. godine u Belgiji (Belgija, Francuska, Velika Britanija).
U Francuskoj je održan 15.12.1963. prvi europski karate kongres sa nazoćnošću predstavnika sedam nacionalnih saveza: Italije, Belgije, Švicarske, Njemačke, Velike Britanije, Francuske i Španjolske. Na kongresu je odlučeno da se kontaktiraju nacionalne europske judo federacije u okviru kojih se je vježbao karate. Zauzet je stav da je unifikacija karate tehnika nemoguća te da se pitanje unifikacije sudačkih pravila koja su bila različita u nacionalnim savezima rješi na idućem kongresu.
Drugi europski karate kongres održan je u Parizu 24.05.1964. godine gdje su delegati za predsjednika izabrali Jacques Delcourt-a, te direktorij u sastavu: podpredsjednici Brief (Njemačka), Cherix (Švicarska), Fannoy (Belgija), tajnik Sebban (Francuska) i pomoćnik tajnika Goetz (Belgija). U sklopu kongresa održan je sudački tečaj pod vodstvom japanskih instruktora.
Treći europski karate kongres održan je u Parizu 21.11.1965. godine na kojem je broj članova povećan na deset uključenjem delegata iz Jugoslavije, Austrije i Portugala. Tehnički savjetnik francuz Henry Plee izabrao je četiri japanska instruktora za savjetnike (Kono, Yamashima, Toyama i Suzuki). Prihvaćen je statut te je formirana Europska karate unija (EKU) te je na novim izborima za predsjednika izabran Jacques Delcourt i direktorij u sastavu: 1-podpredsjednik Fannoy (Belgija), 2-podpredsjednik Cherix (Švicarska), tajnik sa funkcijom blagajnika Sebban (Francuska) i pomoćnik tajnika Goetz (Belgija).
Na kongresu je donesen financijski plan i sudačka pravila te je odlučeno da se prvo europsko prvenstvo održi 07.05.1966. u Parizu (momčadsko natjecanje sa 5 natjecatelja + jedna rezerva i pojedinačno bez težinskih kategorija i sa maksimalnim brojem od 4 natjecatelja po nacionalnom savezu).
Prvi europski prvak 1966. bila je momčad Francuske koja je u finalu pobijedila Švicarsku. U finalu pojedinačnog natjecanja Baroux je pobijedio Sauvina (oba iz Francuske). Prvenstvo je obilovalo teškim povredama. Na kongresu je izabrana Sudačka komisija a za savjetnike su izabrani Suzuki i Mochizuki.
U Rimu je 1967. godine održan prvi međunarodni sudački seminar koji je trajao tjedan dana i na kojemu su usklađena sudačka pravila bazirana na pravlima JKA. Na seminaru su iz Hrvatske sudjelovali Berislav Jandrić i Žarko Modrić.
Drugo europsko prvenstvo održano je 05.05.1967. godine u Londonu, a na kongresu je odlučeno da se drugi međunarodni sudački seminar održi u Splitu 1968. godine.
Na međunarodnom sudačkom seminaru održanom u Splitu u sklopu "Kupa Jadrana" za međunarodne suce su položili Berislav Jandrić, Emin Topić i Žarko Modrić.
U Parizu je 1968. godine održano treće europsko prvenstvo i 6 kongres EKU.
U Londonu je 1969. godine održano četvrto europsko prvenstvo i 7 kongres EKU.
Peto europsko prvenstvo održano je u Hamburgu 1970. godine i 8 kongres EKU na kojemu je prihvaćen repasažni sistem natjecanja i usvojene su težinske kategorije.

Iste godine prihvaćen je statut te je osnovana Svjetska karate unija (WKU) a prvo svjetsko prvenstvo održano je u Tokiju 10.10.1970. godine.

Biljke (lat. Plantae) su glavna grupa koja sadrži preko 300,000 vrsta, uključujući i organizme kao drveće, cvijeće, bilje i paprati.
Aristotel je podijelio sve žive stvari među biljkama, koje se ne miču ili imaju osjetljive organe i životinje. U sustavu podjele po Linnaeusu oni postaju: biljke - carstvo Vegetabilia (kasnije Plantae) i životinje - Animalia. Nakon toga postalo je jasno da carstvo Plantae sadrži nekoliko međusobno povezanih grupa zajedno s gljivama i nekoliko vrsta alga koje su uvrštene u novo carstvo.
Bez obzira na to one se i dalje često smatraju biljkama u mnogim kontekstima.
Doduše, svaki pokušaj da se biljke smjesti u samostalnu grupu doživio je neuspjeh, zbog toga što su biljke nejasno definirane prema pravilima koja postavlja moderna klasifikacija (sistematika).



Najpoznatija višestanična vrsta biljaka je embriofit. Ona uključuje vaskularne biljke, skupinu biljaka koje imaju lišće, stabljike i korijenje. Isto tako uključuje i nekoliko biljaka koje su u njihovom bliskom srodstvu, često ih nazivamo briofitima.
Sve ove biljke imaju komplekse stanica sa zidovima stanica sastavljenim od celuloze i većina od njih crpi svoju energiju pomoću procesa fotosinteze, pritom koristeći sunčevu svjetlost i ugljični dioksid za sintezu hrane.
Preko 300 vrsta biljaka ne vrši fotosintezu . Takve biljke nazivamo parazitima koje žive na drugim vrstama biljaka koje se služe fotosintezom.
Biljke su nastale od zelenih algi, od kojih su evoluirale tako da su razvile specijalne reproduktivne organe zaštićene od nereprodukcije tkiva.
Vrsta briofiti se prvi put pojavila u doba ranog Paleozoika. Vrsta može preživjeti samo gdje je vlaga dostupna većinu vremena, iako mnoge vrste toleriraju i vrijeme suše. Mnoge vrste briofita ostaju male kroz svoj životni vijek.
Vaskularne biljke imaju takav broj prilagodbi koji im je omogućio svladati ograničenja koja imaju briofiti. To uključuje dobar otpor suši i vaskularno tkivo koje transportira vodu kroz organizam.
Prvo primitivno sjeme biljaka - sjeme paprati.
Sjeme nekih biljaka može preživjeti ekstremne vremenske uvjete i razmnožavati se u njima. Biljkama je potrebna sunčeva svjetlost i toplina, voda i tlo da bi se mogle razvijati i živjeti. Za stvaranje hrane im je potrebna voda, ugljični dioksid, sunce. Dijelovi biljke su: tučak, latice, prašnici, stabljika, lapovi, korijen, plod, cvijet i list. Listovi biljkama omogućuju samostalno stvaranje hrane. Pomoću korijenja ona dobiva minerale i vodu, dok ih stabljika prenosi do dijelova biljke. Cvijet omogućuje njezino razmnožavanje.



Alge čine grupu koju sačinjavaju različiti organizmi, a koji crpe energiju procesom fotosinteze. One nisu smještene u carstvo biljaka. Postoje i druge vrste algi koje uključuju i jednostanične organizme koji se sastoje od stanica bez različitoga tkiva.
Embriofiti su potekli od zelenih algi. Izuzev nekoliko zelenih algi, sve među njima imaju zidove stanica koje sadrže celulozu i kloroplaste koji sadrže klorofil a i b i tako stvaraju energiju. Kloroplasti zelenih algi su okruženi s dvije membrane, što sugerira da su potekle direktno od Cyanobacteria. Isto tako je i s crvenim algama, i za dvije grupe se vjeruje da imaju zajedničko porijeklo. Suprotno tome mnogo drugih algi ima kloroplaste s tri ili četri membrane. One nisu u bliskom srodstvu sa zelenim algama, zasebno stjecanje kloroplasta je simbol zelenih i crvenih algi.
Za razliku od embriofita i algi, gljive ne vrše fotosintezu, jer ne sadrže klorofil. Do hrane dolaze sastavljanjem i apsorbiranjem tvari iz svoga okruženja. Razmnožavaju se sporama. Nisu u rodu ni s jednom vrstom koja vrši fotosintezu, ali su zato usko povezane sa životinjama.



Mnogi ljudi kao prehranu koriste žitarice. Ostale biljke koje koristimo u prehrani su voće, povrće, ljekovito bilje i začini. Neke vaskularne biljke kao drveće i grmlje (šikara) imaju važnu ulogu u graditeljstvu kao građevni materijal.
Veliki broj biljaka se koristi i u dekorativne svrhe, uključujući i mnoge vrste cvijeća.


Kroz proces fotosinteze, biljke koriste sunčevu energiju, da iz zraka pretvore ugljični dioksid u jednostavni šećer. Taj šećer se tada koristi kao materijal za gradnju i formu komponenti biljke. Biljke se pouzdaju u tlo kao glavni izvor vode, no isto tako pokušavaju se domoći dušika, fosfora i drugih važnih hranjivih tvari.
Neke vrste biljaka koriste specijalnu obranu kao trn ili bodlje, naprimjer kupine. Po životnom vijeku biljke smo podijelili u 3 skupine:
jednogodišnje biljke - žive i razmnožavaju se kroz razdoblje od jedne godine
dvogodišnje biljke - žive kroz razdoblje od dvije godine, većinom se razmnožavaju u prvoj godini
trajnice - žive više od dvije godine i nastavljaju se razmnožavati tijekom godina
Među vaskularnim biljkama u trajnice se ubraja crnogorično drvo (zimzelen) -- naziv za one biljke koje zadržavaju svoje lišće tokom cijele godine, i bjelogorično drvo (listopadno) -- biljke koje gube listove u nekim dijelovima godine: u mjestima gdje vlada umjerena i sjeverna klima većinom zimi, a mnoge tropske biljke gube svoje listove za vrijeme sušne sezone


Okamine biljaka uključuju korijenje, drvo, listove, sjeme, plodove, pelud, spore i jantar (smola nastala fosilizacijom biljke). Okamine biljaka su zabilježene u zemlji, riječnim naslagama i u talogu mora. Pelud, spore i alge su korištene za određivanje vremena iz kojeg naslage taloga potječu.
Ostaci fosila biljaka nisu uobičajeni kao fosili životinja, premda su fosili biljaka nađeni u obilju diljem svijeta. Stariji fosili nekadašnjih biljaka pokazuju pojedine stanice unutar tkiva biljke. Devonski period pokazuje evoluciju , za koju mnogi vjeruju da opisuje prvo suvremeno stablo Archaeopteris.
Ugljen je ostatak okamine biljke, u njemu se vidi detaljna struktura fosilizirane biljke. Ostaci fosila iz vremena Mezozoik: crnogorično drvo, korijenje, stabljike i grane mogu se u izobilju naći u jezerima i priobalnom području uz stijene. Najčešće su to palme i hrastovi.

Naziv divlje životinje koristi se u pravilu za životinja koje žive u svom prirodnom staništu, podalje od čovjeka. To ih razlikuje od pripitomljenih, tako zvanih domesticiranih životinja. U ovu skupinu spada i divljač, životinje koje čovjek lovi, a što je uređeno Zakonom o lovu. U svakodnevnom govoru, pojedine vrste divljih životinja nazivaju se prema srodnim vrstama koje su domesticirane. Tako se sive guske (Anser anser) nazivaju "divljim guskama", a Anas platyrynchos se naziva "divljom patkom", iako to nije jedina vrsta koju bi se moglo ubrojati u ovu skupinu. Danas bi se divljim konjima mogli nazvati još samo Pševalskijevi konji, no naziv se u širem smislu koristi i za mustange, iako su ustvari potomci domesticiranih konja koji su se kasnije odvojili od čovjeka i vratili se životu u prirodi


Gotovo svuda na svijetu postoje divlje životinje, no najmanje divljih životinja još živi u divljini koju nije čovjek na neki način preoblikovao. Svaka životinjska vrsta ima određene potrebe u odnosu na okoliš (hrana, mogućnost razmnožavanja, skrivanje od neprijatelja i slično), koje su u dovoljnoj mjeri zadovoljene i u područjima koje je čovjek prilagodio svojim potrebama. Neke su životinje čak razvile naviku korištenja prednosti blizine čovjeka (bijela roda, neke vrste miševa).
S druge strane, ljudske aktivnosti (poljoprivreda, gradnja naselja) razorile su, ili u najmanju ruku osjetno smanjile površine na kojima inače žive divlje životinje. Broj divljih životinja koje zbog svojih posebnih potreba ne mogu promijeniti stanište i dalje će se smanjivati.


Samim svojim prisustvom divlje životinje obogaćuju čovjekov okoliš (na primjer, ptice pjevice svojom pjesmom).
Usprkos tome, odnos čovjeka prema divljim životinjama često je problematičan:
Neke divlje životinje uzrokuju štete, najčešće vezane za pridobivanje i skladištenje hrane (štakori, miševi, crvena lisica, jastreb, razni kukci). Zbog toga, mnoge od njih čovjek ne samo da ne podnosi u svojoj blizini, nego ih i ubija.
Veliki grabežljivci često su opasnost za ljude i njihove domaće životinje.
Neke životinje prenose bolesti (trakavica, bjesnoća, malarija).
Poljoprivredno i šumarsko korištenje površina obilježavaju danas monokulture koje svojom "očišćenošću" od drugih eventualno konkurentskih ili štetnih kultura, pruža potrebne komponente za život samo izrazito malom broju vrsta. Za mnoge životinjske vrste potrebna je raznovrsno strukturirana pokrajina.
U suvremenoj poljoprivredi koriste se kemijska pomoćna sredstva (gnojiva, pesticidi, herbicidi) koji se kroz prehrambeni lanac nakupljaju u divljim životinjama sa štetnim posljedicama. Na to se nadovezuje različit otrovni industrijski otpad i otpad iz postrojenja za uništavanje smeća i pročičćavanje otpadnih voda.
Životni prostor mnogih divljih životinja ljudi u slobodno vrijeme koriste za razne aktivnosti. Životinje osjetljive na ometanje povlače se s tih područja.
Mnoge životinje stradavaju na cestama i dalekovodima koji se protežu kroz njihov životni prostor.
Kultivirani prostori mijenjaju se toliko brzo, da se divlje životinje ne uspijevaju tome prilagoditi.
Divlje životinje tradicionalno su ljudima izvor hrane i sirovina (lov, ribolov).
Čovjek u cirkusima iskorištava divlje životinje za vlastitu zabavu.
Zoološki vrtovi su s jedne strane zatvori za životinje, ali s druge pomažu nekim krajnje ugroženim vrstama da opstanu.


Pod pojmom upravljanja divljim životinjama podrazumijevaju se mjere pomoću kojih se rješavaju konflikti povezani s divljim životinjama. Ljudi koji se time bave trude se prije svega ponovo naseliti neke vrste na područja s kojih su nestale (smeđi medvjed, vuk, ris, dabar). Upoznavanjem i obrazovanjem lokalnog stanovništva podiže se njihova granica prihvaćanja ovih životinja, ali i oblikovanje politike prema divljim životinjama. Kad dođe do šteta koje one uzrokuju, u određenim okolnostima se stanovništvu daje naknada. Znanstveno se prati kretanje unutar određene populacije, a okoliš se po mogućnosti prilagođava specifičnim potrebama određene vrste. Kao krajnja mjera koristi se preseljavanje životinja.


Brojnost mnogih životinja se smanjuje. U područjima koje nastanjuju ljudi, mnoge su vrste već izumrle ili su iz njih nestale. Kako je područja koje ljudi ne oblikuju prema svojim potrebama sve manje, a i dalje će se smanjivati, životinje koje izbjegavaju ljude su u principu ugrožene.
Godine 1961. je osnovan World Wildlife Fund (WWF, World Wide Fund for Nature), što je bila prva organizacija koja je upozorila na ugroženost divljih životinja. Osnivanje posebnih zaštićenih područja počinje bez zakonske podloge, no kasnije se u nizu država regulira Zakonima o zaštiti prirode, što onda opet omogućuje stvaranje područja na kojima se divlje životinje aktivno štite u cijelom nizu država, a omogućuje i ponovno naseljavanje već nestalih životinjskih vrsta u njihova prirodna staništa.

Države u kojima je jak reprezentativni vaterpolo su: Hrvatska, Mađarska, Srbija, Crna Gora, Rusija, Italija, Grčka, Njemačka, Španjolska, SAD, Australija, ali i Slovačka i Francuska drže priključak ovoj skupini.
Najviše uspjeha na kontinentalnim (vaterpolska EP...) i svjetskim prvenstvima imale su Mađarska, SSSR, SFR Jugoslavija, Italija, Španjolska.
U međunarodnim klupskim natjecanjima, najviše uspjeha polučile su hrvatske momčadi (ističu se Mladost Zagreb, Jug Dubrovnik i Jadran Split), zatim momčadi iz Italije (posebno Posillipo Napulj, Pro Recco i Pescara), Mađarske (Honved, Vasas, BVSC i Ujpest Torna), Srbije (Partizan Beograd), Rusije, Njemačke (Spandau Berlin), Španjolske (Barcelona), a u 21. stoljeću i klubovi iz Grčke postižu uspjehe.
Krovna organizVaterpolo se igra u pravokutnom bazenu najčešćih dimenzija 30x20m (iako dimenzije mogu varirati: 20-30x10-20), minimalne dubine 1.8m. Golovi su dimenzija 3x0.9m. Gol linije i centar označeni su bijelim stupićima kraj bazena, dvometarska linija označena je crvenim, a 5-metarska žutim stupićem. Lopta je opsega 0.68-0.71m, i teži 400-450 grama. Ekipe se razlikuju po boji kapica: nekada su dopuštene bile samo plave/bijele, a danas se koriste bilo kakve, uz uvjet da su kapice protivničkih ekipa različitih boja (oba golmana nose crvene kapice). Igru kontroliraju dva linijska i glavni sudac. Napad traje 30 sekundi.acija za vaterpolo u Hrvatskoj je Hrvatski vaterpolski savez.

Dimenzije rukometnog terena su dužina 40 metara, a širina 20 m. Tereni su uglavnom u natkrivenim prostorima ili dvoranama, a podloga je tradicionalno bio drveni parket, dok se danas koriste umjetni materijali od tvrde gume. Postoje i vanjski tereni, uglavnom od betona ili asfalta, ali se oni uglavnom ne koriste za natjecanja najvišeg nivoa zbog opasnosti od padova i ozljeda igrača. Na terenu se nalaze linije koje određuju pojedine dijelove terena. Na sredini terena se nalazi linija koja odvaja teren na dvije polovice. Na suprotnim stranama terena, i to na na kraćim stranicama, nalazi se po jedan gol, koji je 2 m visok i 3 m širok. U golu je razapeta mreža. Ispred svakog gola nalazi se polukružni prostor, na prosječnoj udaljenosti 6 m od gola, označen punom linijom. Taj se prostor od 6 m na terenu osim što je označen linijom često i oboji drugom bojom, različitom od boje ostatka terena.U taj prostor nitko osim golmana nema pravo ulaska. Na 9 m od gola nalazi se isprekidana polukružna linija tzv. deveterac. Ispred gola na udaljenosti 7 m nalazi se kratka ravna crta koja označava mjesto izvođenja kaznenog udarca, tzv. sedmerca.
Rukometna lopta je takve veličine da je prosječni igrač može držati u jednoj ruci prstima, s dlanom prema dolje, iako naravno smije loptu držati i s obje ruke. Standardno se kao materijal izrade koristi koža, iako ima i lopti od umjetnih materijala.Cilj igre je loptom pogoditi gol, tj. postići pogodak. Igra se po dva poluvremena od po 30 minuta, i momčad koja postigne više golova je pobjednik. Igrači smiju rukama dodirivati loptu i dodavati se međusobno, kao i šutirati prema golu. Svaki igrač smije napraviti do tri koraka držeći loptu u ruci, dok za svaki slijedeći korak mora loptu voditi odbijajući je od poda, ili je mora dodati suigraču.
Svi igrači se slobodno kreću po cijelom terenu, osim u prostoru 6 m ispred oba gola. U tom prostoru smije stajati samo po jedan član obrambene momčadi koji se naziva vratar (golman). Ostali igrači smiju iznad prostora od 6 m loptu pokušati uhvatiti ili dodati samo u skoku, dakle za vrijeme leta.
Dvije osnovne faze igre za svaku momčad su faza napada i faza obrane. U fazi napada igrači najčešće koriste formaciju s dva bočna igrača (lijevo i desno krilo), tri vanjska igrača (lijevi vanjski, srednji vanjski i desni vanjski) te pivot ili centar. U obrani se koristi nekoliko različitih varijanti, koje označavaju način postavljanja tj formacije obrambenih igrača ispred svog prostora od 6 m. Tako se recimo koriste obrana 6-0 (šesti igrača u ravnini ispred crte od 6 m), zatim 5-1 (pet igrača u liniji te jedan ispred njih koji pokušava ometati organizatora igre protivničke momčadi), zatim 4-2 a rijeđe se koristi i formacija 3-2-1. Momčad u napadu će ovisno o formaciji obrane pokušati naći način da dođu što bliže golu u što povoljniju poziciju za šut na gol.
Obrambeni igrači smiju do određene mjere ometati napadače u pokušaju dodavanja lopte ili šuta na gol. Ukoliko pri tome koriste udarce ili grubo potezanje protivnika jedan od dva suca će dosuditi prekršaj. Za izrazito grube prekršaje može se dobiti kazna žutog ili crvenog kartona, isključenja na dvije minute ili trajnog isključenja iz igre. Kod isključenja na dvije minute momčad nema pravo zamjene isključenog igrača za vrijeme trajanja kazne. Prekršaj se izvodi s mjesta gdje je počinjen osim u dva slučaja:
ukoliko je prekršaj napravljen u zoni deveterca a pri tom nije bilo izrazite prilike za postizanje gola, dosuđuje se tzv. deveterac, koji se izvodi s isprekidane crte deveterca na mjestu najbliže prekršaju
ukoliko je prekršaj bio u zoni oko 6 m i to u trenutku izrazite šanse za postizanje pogotka (već upućen šut ili igrač koji je slobodan u izglednoj poziciji za šut na gol) dosuđuje se kazneni udarac sedmerac. Kod izvođenja sedmerca svi obrambeni igrači moraju stajati iza prostora deveterca, a jedan napadač upućuje izravni udarac na gol s pozicije sedam metara.
Rukomet se danas igra u muškoj i ženskoj konkurenciji, te u različitim dobnim skupinama. Rukomet je i standardni olimpijski sport, u programu Igara neprekidno od Igara u Munchenu 1972. godine do danas.

1. Što radi plavuša na listu papira? - Vozi A 4.
2. Šta mama kaže plavuši prije izlaska? - Ako nisi u krevetu do 22:00 vrati se kući.
3. Zašto plavuša nosi brijači aparat u disco? - Zato jer se tamo brije.
4. Zašto plavuša puzi po dućanu? - Traži niske cijene.
5. Zašto plavuša otvara mlijeko u dućanu? - Jer na tetrapaku piše OTVORI OVDJE.
6. Pitali plavušu koja je razlika između ševe i deve? -"Ne znam, nikad se nisam devila."
7. Zašto plavuša pere veš na dnu mora? - Zato jer Ariel pere dubinski.
8. Što plavuša prvo učini kad se ujutro probudi? - Pokupi stvari i ode doma.
9. Zašto plavuša nosi jogurt oko vrata? - Jer na njemu piše DUKAT.
10. Zašto plavuša pleše ispod semafora? - Zato jer misli da je u discu.
11. Zašto plavuša baca travu na cestu? - Da nahrani zebru.
12. Veslaju dvije plavuše čamac usred livade. Dođe treća i kaže: "E, sad bih vas prevrnula da znam plivati."
13. Koja je razlika između kokoši i plavuše? - Kokoš zna na čijim jajima sjedi.
14. Koja je druga razlika između kokoši i plavuše? - Kokoš mirno sjedi na jajima a plavuša skakuće.
15. Pita jedna plavuša drugu: "Kaj misliš, kak se pravilno veli Irak ili Iran?"
16. Koja je razlika između mačke i plavuše? - Mačka ima sedam života, a plavuša može sedam puta.
17. Koja je druga razlika između mačke i plavuše? Mačka se uvijek dočeka na noge, a plavuša na leđa.
18. Što plavuša kaže kad se probudi ispod krave? "Dečki još ste tu?"
19. Kako znate je li plavuša igrala igrice na kompjutoru? - Po ružu na joysticku.
20. Otkud plavuši kostur u grmu? - Plavuša se igrala skrivaca pa je nikad nisu našli.
21. Zašto plavuša nosi naočale na trbuhu? - Zato jer ima slijepo crijevo.
22. Zašto plavuša ima perja u nosu? - Zato jer je šmrkala koku.
23. Šetaju dvije plavuše parkom i jedna drugoj kaže: "Gle mrtva ptica!". Druga plavuša podigne glavu i pita: "Gdje, gdje?!"
24. Zašto plavuša baca tablete u vodu? Zato jer na njima piše PLIVA.
25. Što je plavuša u BMW-u? Dodatna oprema.
26. Što učini plavuša nakon češljanja? Obuće traperice.
27. Zašto plavuša bježi u kut svoje sobe kad joj je hladno? - Zato jer kut ima dvadeset stupnjeva.
28. Što kažu plavušine noge kad se posvađaju? - "Među nama je svršeno!!!!!!"
29. Dođe plavuša u dućan s tehnikom i pita: "Imate li televizore u boji?" - "Imamo." - "Onda mi dajte jedan zeleni."
30. Zašto plavuše jedu knjigu? - Čitaju u sebi.
31. Što plavuša radi ujutro ispod stabla? - Čeka JUTARNJI LIST.
32. Zašto se vide otisci cipela na plavušinom monitoru? - Zato jer je pokušavala ući na Internet.
33. Zašto plavuša skače s nebodera? - Isprobava nove ALWAYS s krilcima.
34. Što plavuša radi na dnu mora? - Čeka Leonarda Di Caprija.
35. Zašto plavuša baca sat? - Da vidi kako vrijeme leti.
36. Zašto je plavuša ponosna kad složi puzzle za 6 mjeseci? - Zato jer na kutiji piše ZA 3 DO 5 GODINA.
37. Guraju se dvije plavuše na krevetu i jedna padne. Ona na krevetu pozove drugu: "Daj dođi gore, sad ima puno više mjesta."
38. Zašto plavuša u Srbiji nosi špagu kad ide kupiti kruh? Zato jer piše SVEZI HLEB.
39. Koja je razlika između Titanika i plavuše? Na Titaniku se zna koliko je bilo ljudi, a na plavuši ne zna.
40. Što piše plavuši na grobu? "Prvi put legla sama."
41. Zašto se plavuša valja po cesti? Da zavede ležeće policajce.
42. Zašto plavuša kuca po banderi? Zato jer piše da se iznajmljuje stan.
43. Zašto plavuša u ljekarni hoda na prstima? Da ne probudi tablete za spavanje.
44. Zašto se plavuša penje na kucu? Cula je da kuca casti.
45. Koji natpis plavuša najviše mrzi? "Zabranjeno pušenje."
46. Plavuša je imala čak dvije prilike zatrudnjeti. Ali, obje je popušila.
47. Kako plavuša radi pekmez? Guli krafne.
48. Zašto plavuša kupuje bijelu odjeću? Za crne dane.
49. Kuca netko na vrata stana jedne plavuše. Ona pita: "Tko je?" - "Raznosac pizza !" - "Izvrsno, uđi i raznesi je na brzinu."
50. Što plavuša radi s raširenim nogama ispred radijatora? Vlazi zrak.
51. Otkud plavuši novac za video? Prodala je televizor.
52. Što kaže plavuša kad sazna da je trudna? "Joj samo da nije moje!!!"
53. Zašto plavuša ima kockaste sise? Zato jer je zaboravila izvaditi silikone iz kutija.
54. Zašto plavuša ulijeva vodu u kompjutor? Zato jer je htjela surfati po internetu.
55. Idu dvije plavuše ulicom i nađu ogledalce. Prva ga uzme i kaže: "Gle, moja slika !!!", a druga joj ga uzme i kaže: "Joj, što si ružna !!!".
56. Kako posjesti 4 plavuše na jedan stolac? Okreneš ga naopako.
57. Kako znaš da plavuša ne nosi gaćice? Ima perut na cipelama.
58. Zašto plavuša u kinu uvijek sjedi u prvome redu? Voli prva vidjeti film.
59. Zašto plavuša u kinu sjedi u zadnjem redu? Jer tko se zadnji smije, najslađe se smije.
60. Zašto plavuša nosi sat oko noge? Zato jer ide u korak s vremenom.
61. Kojih osam godina je bilo najtežze plavuši? Treci razred osnovne.
62. Što je plavuša učinila da bi imala siguran sex? Zaključala je vrata od auta.
63. Kako plavuša radi abortus? Popne se na krov i ubije rodu.
64. Kako ukrasti plavuši mjesto do prozora? Reci joj: "Gospođice samo vam moj red ide za Karlovac."
65. Koliko je potrebno plavuša da naprave kokice? Tri, jedna drzi lonac, a druge dvije drmaju štednjak.
66. Zašto 17 plavuša čeka vani ispred disca? Zato jer ispod 18 ne smiju ući.
67. Koja je razlika između pametne plavuše i NLO-a? Ima ljudi koji su vidjeli NLO.
68. Koja je razlika između plavuše i pivske boce? Nikakva. Obje su prazne, od vrata prema gore.
69. Što kaze plavuša kad je pitaju radi li joj žmigavac? Radi, ne radi, radi, ne radi ...
70. Kako je plavuša umrla pijući mlijeko? Na nju je pala krava.
71. Zašto plavuša stavlja kocku šecera pod jastuk kad ide na spavanje? Misli da će biti slatka kad se probudi.
72. Zašto plavuša ne zna napisati brojku 11? Ne zna koja jedinica ide prva.
73. Zašto se svađaju dvije plavuše u autu na prvom sjedalu? Svađaju se koja će sjesti do prozora.
74. Što radi plavuša kad drži ruke na ustima? Pokušava zadržati misao.
75. Zašto je dobro imati plavušu kao suvozača? Zato jer uvijek možeš parkirati na mjestu za invalide.
76. Tko prvi padne na zemlju kad se baci s nebodera: plavuša ili crvenokosa? Crvenokosa, zato jer se plavuša izgubi putem.
77. Kako znaš da je fax poslala plavuša? Na njemu je poštanska markica.
78. Zašto plavuše imaju rupice na licu? Zato jer jedu vilicom.
79. Koja je razlika između plavuše i telefona? Upotreba telefona košta samo nekoliko kuna.
80. Zašto plavuša šuti kad vodi ljubav? Mama joj je rekla da ne priča sa strancima.
81. Zašto plavuše ne vole jesti banane? Ne mogu pronaći šlic.
82. Kako se zove plavuša s dvije moždane stanice? Trudnica.
83. Kako umiru plavušine moždane stanice? Usamljene.
84. Koja je oprema potrebna plavuši da pretrči 100 metara? Karta i kompas.
85. Što je rekla plavuša kad je rodila blizance?"O, moj Bože, tko je drugi otac?!?"
86. Zašto je plavuša maknula vrata od zahoda? Da je nitko ne gleda kroz ključaonicu.
87. Zašto plavuša nije htjela biti Jehovin svjedok? Zato jer je rekla da nije vidjela nesreću.
88. Zašto plavuša ne zeli više biti prostitutka? Naljutila se jer je čula da su druge prostitutke dobivale novac.
89. Zašto plavuša nikad nema leda u zamrzivaču? Zato jer ne zna recept.
90. Što je rekla plavuša kad su joj rekli da ima samo zrak u glavi? "Bolje išta, nego ništa"
91. Zašto se plavuša policajka upucala u glavu? Ispalila je metak upozorenja.
92. Što je rekla plavuša pri porodu?"Nadam se da nije moje."
93. Koja je razlika između plavuše i podmornice? Nisu svi bili u podmornici.
94. Zašto plavuša ne voli jesti kisele krastavce? Zato jer ne može zavući glavu u teglu.
95. Kako se zove plavuša s pola mozga? Nadarena.
96. Kako se zove crnka između dvije plavuše? Prevoditeljica.
97. Kako se zove nevina plavuša? Novorođence.
98. Koja je razlika između zahoda i plavuše? Zahod ne ide za tobom nakon obavljene nužde.
99. Kako se zove plavuša na fakultetu? Slučajni prolaznik.
100. Kako se zove plavuša za volanom? Air-bag.

Nogomet je ekipni sport koji se igra između dvije ekipe sastavljenih od jedanaest igrača ili igračica. Nogomet je trenutačno najpopularniji sport na svijetu. Igra se nogometnom loptom na pravokutnom igralištu s travnatom ili umjetnom površinom. Golovi su smješteni nasuprot jedan drugome na kraju igrališta. Cilj je igre ubaciti loptu u protivnički gol manevrirajući loptom bilo kojim dijelom tijela osim rukom. Jedino vratar može u ograničenom području igrati rukom. Pobjednik je utakmice ekipa koja na kraju utakmice zabije više pogodaka (golova, zgoditaka).


Suvremena nogometna igra razvila se u Engleskoj poslije stvaranja prvog nogometnog saveza davne 1863. godine. Prva pravila datiraju iz iste godine, a s manjim promjenama održala su se i do danas. Najviše je nogometno tijelo FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). FIFA organizira Svjetsko prvenstvo u nogometu, najprestižnije natjecanje u nogometu, a možda i najpopularnije sportsko natjecanje uopće.
Nogomet se igra po propisima koji se nazivaju nogometna pravila. Igra se odvija manevriranjem loptom, a dvije ekipe od po 11 igrača trude se ubaciti loptu u protivnički gol. Ekipa koja zabije više pogodaka na kraju utakmice jest pobjednik, a ako obje ekipe imaju jednak broj postignutih pogodaka (ili nijedna), utakmica je neodlučena (remi).
Primarno je pravilo da nijedan igrač osim vratara ne smije namjerno dotaknuti loptu rukom ili dlanom (rame je dozvoljeno). No, igrači moraju izvesti aut upravo rukom, bolje rečeno objema rukama, jer izvođenje auta jednom rukom znači automatsku dodjelu lopte protivničkoj ekipi. Iako se igrači najviše koriste nogom za manevriranje loptom, dopušteno je manevriranje bilo kojim dijelom tijela osim ruke.
Igrači se pokušavaju približiti protivničkim vratima s loptom na razne načine: individualnom kontrolom poput driblinga, dodavanjem lopte suigraču ili udarcem prema golu kojeg protivnički vratar nastoji neutralizirati. Protivnička ekipa nastoji osvojiti loptu presijecanjem dodavanja ili uklizavanjem prema protivniku koji ima loptu u posjedu. No, uklizavanje je ograničeno; ako dođe do kontakta između igrača koji uklizava i onog koji ima loptu, prekršaj je dosuđen, a lopta se daje ekipi u čijoj je ekipi bio igrač s loptom u posjedu.
Nogomet je najčešće živa igra. Lopta je u igri sve vrijeme osim kada izađe izvan granica igrališta ili kada sudac zaustavi igru. Nakon zaustavljanja, igra se nastavlja prema propisima.

U profesionalnim ligama, na utakmici padne najčešće padne najviše 3 gola. Na primjer, u Premiershipu u sezoni 2005./06., prosjek je golova po utakmici bio 2.48.
U pravilima nogometa, samo vratar ima određenu ulogu. Svi ostali igrači mogu igrati na bilo kojem mjestu na terenu. U modernom nogometu, postoje, osim vratara, još tri osnovne pozicije:
napadači: čija je glavna uloga zabijanje golova
vezni igrači: čija je uloga oduzimanje lopte protivniku te upošljavanje napadača kvalitetnim loptama
braniči: njihova je uloga sprečavanje protivničke ekipe da zabiju gol
Ove se pozicije dalje razrađuju. Ta se razrada najčešće očituje u postavljanju igrača na određenu stranu, npr.: postoje centralni (središnji) braniči, te lijevi i desni vezni igrači. Iako igrači igraju na unaprijed određenoj poziciji, oni mogu bez problema prijeći na neku drugu poziciju. Određivanje pozicije na kojoj će igrači igrati zove se nogometna formacija. Formacija ujedno definira i taktiku, a određuje je trener.

Igre koje su se temeljile na napucavanju lopte odigravale su se u mnogim zemljama tijekom povijesti. Najstarija igra o kojoj postoje važeći dokumenti jest Cuju, spomenuta tijekom vojnih vježbi za vrijeme Dinastije Čin u Kini (255.-206. prije Krista). Ostale pradavne igre bile su Kemari u Japanu te Harpastum u Starom Rimu.

Pravila nogometa donesena su sredinom 19. stoljeća da bi konačno ujedinila sve vrste nogometa koje su se igrale po raznim školama diljem Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva. Prva su pravila izmišljena u Cambridgeu 1848. No, ta pravila nisu bila usvojena. Tijekom 50-ih godina 19. stoljeća, brojni klubovi diljem država s engleskim kao materinskim jezikom igrali su nogomet koji se razlikovao od jednog do drugog mjesta. Neki su klubovi donosili vlastita pravila, a najpoznatija su bila Sheffieldska nogometna pravila iz 1867. Također, 1862., John Charles Thring iznio je svoju vrstu pravila koja su imala utjecaja u stvaranju prvih fiksnih pravila.
Sva ova pravila za pozitivnu su posljedicu imale stvaranje prvog nogometnog saveza, dana 26. listopada 1863.. Prvo okupljanje saveza bilo je u Freemason's Tavern u ulici Great Queen Street, London.
U Freemason's Tavern, tijekom pet susreta između listopada i prosinca, donesena su službena pravila koja su, s manjim izmjenama, na snazi i danas. Na završnom sastanku, klub Blackheath povukao se iz saveza zbog izbacivanja sva pravila; prvo, u kojem je pisalo da je dopušteno igrati rukom bilo gdje po terenu, i drugo, u kojem je dozvoljeno udaranje po nogama.
Danas, pravila donosi IFAB (International Football Association Board). Ovo je tijelo osnovano 1886. poslije sastanka u Manchesteru. Na tom su sastanku sudjelovali, osim engleskog, i škotski, velški i irski nogometni savez.
Najstarije nogometno natjecanje engleski je FA Cup, prvi put održan 1872. Engleska je također dom najstarije lige, osnovane 1888. od strane Aston Ville. Originalni sustav natjecanja okupljao je 12 momčadi iz središnje i sjeverne Engleske.
FIFA je osnovana 1904. u Parizu, obećavši da će poštovati i pokušati unaprijediti nogometna pravila. Povećana popularnost nogometa na međunarodnoj razini dovela je da IFAB primi FIFA-u pod svoje okrilje 1913. godine. U današnje vrijeme, IFAB se sastoji od četiri člana iz FIFA-e, te od jednog predstavnika iz svakog od četiri britanska saveza.
U današnje vrijeme, nogomet svoj status najpopularnijeg sporta na svijetu duguje jednostavnim pravilima i minimalnoj opremi. Nogomet se danas igra na profesionalnoj razini u više od dvjesto zemalja svijeta, a zanimljivo je napomenuti da je, prema FIFA-i, veći broj amatera nego profesionalaca. Također, FIFA je 2001. objavila da preko 250 milijuna ljudi igra nogomet redovno za neki profesionalni ili amaterski klub.
U velikom dijelu svijeta, nogomet zbog činjenice da je ekipni sport, zbližava ljude i poboljšava odnose između mjesta, gradova, pa čak i država. Američka TV-postaja ESPN tvrdi da je plasman Obale Bjelokosti na SP 2006. prekinuo građanski rat u toj afričkoj zemlji. No, nasuprot tome, dobro je poznat slučaj nogometnog rata između Hondurasa i Salvadora, kao i nemili događaj na Maksimiru 1990., na utakmici između Dinama i Zvezde.

O pravilima općenito [uredi]
Postoji 17 nogometnih pravila, koja su poznata kao nogometna pravila. Sva su pravila stvorena za svaku razinu nogometa, iako su očite preinake kod juniora, seniora ili žena. Pravila, kada je potrebno, postaju fleksibilna. Tako bezbrojne odluke IFAB-a pomažu u boljoj regulaciji nogometne igre.
Igrači, oprema i suci [uredi]
Glavni članci: nogometni vratar, zamjena, nogometna oprema.
Svaka se ekipa sastoji od najviše 11 igrača (ne zamjena), od kojih jedan mora biti vratar. Pravila natjecanja određuju minimalan broj igrača koji je potreban za stvaranje ekipe, što je najčešće sedam. Vratar se može koristiti rukom ili dlanom te se kretati s loptom u rukama, ali samo unutar šesnaesterca ispred vlastitog gola, ne protivničkog. Iako su aktivni igrači (dakle, ne vratari) posloženi od trenera, nema nikakvog ograničenja što se tiče njihovih pozicija i kretanja.
Osnovna oprema koja je potrebna za nastup uključuje majicu, hlače, čarape (štucne), kopačke i adekvatne štitnike za potkoljenicu. Ne smiju nositi ništa što je opasno za protivničkog igrača ili tog samog igrača. Također se nikakav nakit, pa ni vjenčani prsten, ne smije nositi. Samo sudac smije, tj. treba nositi sat. Vratari moraju imati drukčiju opremu od suigrača, protivničkih igrača i sudaca.
Više igrača može biti zamijenjeno tijekom utakmice. Maksimalan broj zamjena tijekom međunarodne natjecateljske utakmice ili ligaške utakmice jest tri, iako broj zamjena može varirati u nekim drugim ligama ili prijateljskim utakmicama. Najčešći su razlozi za zamjenu ozljeda, umor, neuvjerljiva izvedba, taktička promjena... Prema propisima FIFA-e, zamijenjen igrač ne smije više ući u igru za vrijeme utakmice.
Utakmicu sudi glavni sudac, koji ima potpunu ovlast da provodi sva nogometna pravila tijekom utakmice za koju je izabran da sudi (5. pravilo). Odluka glavnoga suca je konačna. Glavnom sucu pomažu pomoćni suci, a svugdje bi trebao biti i četvrti sudac, iako FIFA to ne zahtijeva. Glavna je uloga četvrtog suca pomaganje ostaloj trojici sudaca i, ako je potrebno, zamjena jednog od trojice sudaca. Ako se ozlijedi jedan od trojice sudaca, na njegovo mjesto uskače četvrti sudac. Budući da u tom slučaju nema četvrtog suca, na SP-u 2006. vidi se da postoji i peti sudac, koji uskače na mjesto četvrtog suca.

Zbog engleskog porijekla nogometa i nadmoći britanskih saveza u ranim danima IFAB-a, standardne dimenzije nogometnog igrališta izražene su u jardima. Tako, npr., jedanaesterac nije udarac upućen s 11 metara, već s 12 jardi! Iako se danas sve više preračunava u metre, nogometne nacije s engleskog govornog područja i dalje koriste jarde kao mjernu jedinicu.
Igralište je oblika pravokutnika. Za međunarodne utakmice, duljina ne smije prelaziti 90 do 100 metara, a širina bi trebala biti između 65 i 75 metara. Ove dulje linije nazivaju se aut-linije, a kraće se nazivaju gol-linije. Duljina aut-linije mora biti veća od duljine gol-linije. Na gol-liniji postavljeni su golovi. Gol se sastoji od grede i dvije stative. Greda mora biti duga točno 8 jarda, ili preračunato, 7.32 metara. Stative se moraju uzdizati 2.44 metra od tla. Ovo može zvučati nevjerojatno, ali mreža koja stoji pričvršćena za gol nije potrebna! Ipak, danas je gotovo nezamislivo igrati bez mreže, pa se ona postavi iza gola.
Ispred svakog gola je šesnaesterac, još poznat i pod nazivima kazneni prostor ili jednostavno prostor. Vidljivo iz slike, poprečna linija spaja dvije okomite linije duge 18 jardi, ili preračunato 16.5 metara. Svaki se prekršaj napravljen u šesnaestercu kažnjava jedanaestercom.
Igralište ima još linija i oznaka koje su opisane u glavnom članku o igralištu.

što je to košarka?

Košarka je sport u kojem dvije momčadi sastavljene od pet igrača pokušavaju ostvariti što više bodova (poena) ubacivanjem lopte kroz obruč koša pod organiziranim pravilima. Kada se to dogodi govori se o košu.
Do bodova se dolazi ubacivanjem lopte kroz obruč koša pod uvjetom da je lopta kroz obruč prošla odozgo. Momčad koja na kraju utakmice ostvari više bodova pobjednik je. Koš zabijen unutar luka vrijedi 2 boda, iza luka vrijedi 3 (trica), a slobodno bacanje vrijedi 1 bod. Loptom se upravlja njenim odbacivanjem od podloge (dribling) ili međusobnim dodavanjem između suigrača.

Tjelesni kontakt koji ometa igrača u igri nije dozvoljen (prekršaj). Postoje strogo određena pravila i načini na koje se lopta smije voditi.
Tijekom vremena košarka je razvila uobičajene tehnike pucanja, dodavanja i dribilinga, kao i pozicije igrača i napadački i obrambeni mehanizam.



Dok se uobičajena natjecateljska košarka odvija pod strogim i točno određenim pravilima, razne vrste košarke učinile su košarku bližu igračima i s manjim brojem pravila.


Košarka je jedan od najgledanijih sportova na svijetu.
Dok je natjecateljska košarka isključivo dvoranski sport koji se odvija na terenu za košarku, manje regulirane vrste košarke mogu se igrati i kao vanjski sport na podlogama različitim od parketa, koji je standard za natjecateljsku košarku.

Kako se igra?
Tenis se igra na terenima koji za podlogu mogu imati travu, glinu, beton ili ;ak plastiku. Prioritet je da se loptica održi u igri prebacujući je preko mreže na drugu stranu terena. Igrači započinju igru servirajući lopticu na protivnika, imajući dvije šanse da je pošalju unutar kvadrata gdje treba da se odbije. Protivnik mora vratiti servis i pritom postoji nekoliko načina udaraca kojima mogu osvajati poene ili jednostavno održati lopticu u igri. samo vam nesmije loptica udariti u mrrežu

Bodovanje
Isprva se bodovanje može činiti dosta zbunjujućim ali je zapravo jednostavno. Kada igrač odlazi na servis on započinje gejm (game) i da bi ga osvojio mora da osvoji četiri poena unutar istog gejma. Bodovanje unutar jednog gejma je ovakav:

1 poen = 15
2 poena = 30
3 poena = 40
4 poena = osvojen gejm.

ako nemate facebook požurite i napravite si ga......
kada ga napravite više se nemožete skinuti s njega on je ˝zarazan˝...
na facebooku ima stotinu vaših prijetalja, rođaka, i puno puno njih...
preko facebookla se možete međusobno upoznati, na facebooku imate i igre i aplikacije, grupe, stranice...svašta....
na facebooku vam ima hrvata, engleza, španjolaca, francuza....na facebooku su svi iz cijeloga svijeta....
tamo se možete upoznati i možda i
www.facebook.com

šta vas zanima o filmovima pitajte...

moj najbolji film je 1. vitez, shrek, i imam ih još puno..

u shreku se pojavljuje ovaj malac koji jako puno laže
a onaj magonja koji je stalno sa shrekom mi je malo.....
najbolje je ovo fiona shrek
a shrek ogar a fiona princeza, a ona glupa vila ja bih nju

ako neznate što je to hip hop evo sada čete saznati....samo za vas

Hip hop/rap je kulturni pokret koji je započeo među urbanim Afro-Amerikancima, Jamajkancima i Portorikancima u Bronxu, kvartu New Yorka, tijekom ranih 1970-ih i otad se proširio po cijelom svijetu. Četiri glavna obilježja, ili "elementa", hip hop kulture su MC-anje (repanje), DJ-anje, grafiti, i breakdance. Neki smatraju beatbox petim elementom hip hopa; neki bi dodali politički aktivizam, hip hop modu, hip hop sleng, double dutching (urbana forma preskakanja užeta) ili druge elemente kao važne dijelove hip hopa. Pojam je otad postao sinonim za hip hop glazbu (ili rap glazbu) publici.

morate pročitati da bi skužili..heh

evo još malo o hip hop-u


Podrijetlo izraza "hip hop" je nejasno. Pokret koji je kasnije postao poznat kao "hip hop" je navodno počeo sa DJ Kool Hercom, dok se DJ-u Afrika Bambaataa često pridodaju zasluge izuma termina "hip hop" za opisivanje kulture. Razne mitske etimologije i komplicirana značenja se dodana izrazu i nastavljaju se propagirati unutar hip hop zajednice.


hip hop se pleše na ulici, u dvorani, i na svakakvim mjestima za plesanje..

hip hoperi imaju mnogo para ste vidili one lančiče...ja bi..a vi

evo vam malo viceva da se nasmijete.....ovako.....

1. Zašto plavuša otvara mlijeko u dućanu? - Jer na tetrapaku piše OTVORI OVDJE

2. Zašto plavuše jedu knjigu? - Čitaju u sebi.

3. Zašto se plavuša penje na kucu? Cula je da kuca casti

4.Koja je razlika između plavuše i pivske boce? Nikakva. Obje su prazne, od vrata prema gore.

samo da znate plavuše ja vam se nerugam samo pišem viceve......

nemojte mi zamjeriti ništa ja sam napiso u opis bloga od a do ž..heh

WC je strašno mjesto, tamo su se i najhrabriji usrali :

fernando torres na fifa svijetskom nogometnom prvenstvu je imao:
odigranih utakmica: 7
postignutih golova: 0
žutih kartona: 0
crvenih kartona: 0

On je iz španjolske
igra za LIVERPOOL FC, igra poziciju napadača i ima samo 26 godina .

komentirajteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee -.-

ovaj auto na slici vam je porsche 918 spyder.....inače jako brzi auto.
ima ga i u filmovima i svugdije...
taj auto inače košta 500.000 eura to je za bogataše jako malo pa si ga mogu priuštiti...Porsche 918 Spyder pokreće 500 konjskih snaga snažan V8 agregat, koji uz pomoć elektromotora potjera ovog super sportaša do stotke za samo 3.2 sekunde i maksimalno 320 kilometara na sat.
taj je auto čak brži i od porsche-a 911 turbo i porsche-a panamera

ako igraju ovi za koje bi navijali ajde komentirajte:
barcelona-dinamo
brazil-španjolska
hajduk-dinamo
manchester citi-manchester unaited
chelsy-manchester unaited..ajde evo vam komajte..
veselim se komentara biti če svakakvih znam....možda ih bude puno heh.....